COMMUNICATION, in its most general sense, is a chain of event in which the significant link is message. The chain connects a source that originates and a destination that interprets the message. The process also involves the production, transmission, and reception of messages. In its broadest humanizing sense, communication is a source and extension of imagination in forms that can be learned and shared. It is the production, perception, and understanding of messages that bear man’s notion of what is, what is important, what is right, and what is related to something else.

交流（沟通），在最普遍的意义上，就是一个事件链，其中重要的联系是信息。该链连接着解释信息起源的来源和目标。该过程还涉及信息的产生、发送以及接收。在其最广泛的人性化意义上，交流就是一种在形式上可以学习和分享的想象力来源与延伸。它是信息的产生、感知和理解，以至于承载着人类对事物的概念，什么是重要的，什么是正确的，以及与别的东西相关的事物。

Messages are events that signify other events. How they accomplish this is a subject of philosophical and psychological controversy, but it is generally agreed that the significance of messages stems from form, pattern, or structure rather than from other causally or naturally determined connections with other events. Where there is smoke there may be fire; but the smoke is a causally determined event and not a message unless it is a smoke signal coded to convey significance. Similarly, dark clouds may portend rain, but they are not messages for rain in the same sense as word “rain” or pictures of rain are. Messages may represent events, as pictures do; they may encode meaning associated with events as smoke signal, words, or numbers do; and they may symbolize other things in the way that verbal and visual languages or graphic pattern do.

信息就是表示其它事件的事件。它们是如何实现这一点的，依然是哲学和心理学争论的一个主题，但人们普遍认为，信息的意义来源于形式、模式或结构，而非与其它事件有其它因果关系或自然决定的联系。有烟雾的地方可能有火；但是，烟雾是由因果关系决定的事件，而不是一种信息，除非它是一种用来传达意义的烟雾信号。同样，乌云可能预示着有雨，但在同样的意义上，它们并不是下雨的信息，就像“雨”这个词或下雨的图片一样。信息可以表示事件，正如图片表示的那样；它们可能生成与烟雾信号、文字，或数字有联系的含义；而且它们可能以文字和视觉语言或图形那样的方式代表其它的东西。

Messages are formally coded, symbolic, or representational patterns of some significance in a culture. Culture itself may be broadly conceived as any system in which messages cultivate and regulate relationships. In human culture, and in the conduct of man’s life and society, communication plays its most complex and distinctive part.

在文化中，信息被正式地编码、用作象征或某种意义的代表模式。文化本身可以被广泛地设想为培育信息和调节人际关系的任何系统。在人类文化中，以及在人类生活和社会的行为中，交流扮演着它最复杂和最独特的部分。

THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUJCATION

Men’s hands, brains, eyes, ears, and mouths are the chief organic means of communication and intelligence. The questions of when and how their teamwork resulted in speech, drawing, and writing, and why other species with similar organs did not share in this development have long puzzled mankind. The puzzle includes, of course, man’s ability to puzzle over the origins of his ability to puzzle, and thus to become so far as we know the only self-conscious creature in the universe.

交流的发展

人类的手、脑、眼、耳和嘴都是交流和智力的主要有机手段。它们的协同是在何时并且如何导致了说话的能力、绘画和书写，以及为什么其他具有类似器官的物种却没有分享这种进步的种种问题一直困扰着人类。当然，这种困扰包括对人类的能力起源苦思冥想的困惑，因此这成为了我们所知的在天地万物中唯一具有自我意识的生物。

The center of the human intelligence system is the cerebral cortex of the brain. There millions of nerve cells specialize in storing an immense number of memories and associations. The abilities to remember and to make associations enable humans to learn from experience. This frees them from rigidly following instincts only and enables them, instead, to respond flexibly to new situations.

人类智力系统的中心是脑的大脑皮层。在那里，数以百万计的神经细胞专门贮藏了巨大数量的记忆和联想。这就使他们摆脱了只遵循本能的束缚，相反，使他们能灵活地回应新的情况。

Man’s relative insulation from the disturbances buffeting the more limited response mechanisms of other organisms provides him with the mental calm necessary for reflection. Storage capacity and reflective ability make it possible to generate language and to extend communications into the collective memories called culture.

人类相对隔绝了冲击着其它生物体较有限的回应机制的干扰，为其提供了反思所必需的心灵平静。存贮容量和反思能力使其产生语言，并将交流延伸到称为文化的集体记忆中成为了可能。

Speech. No one knows how speech began. The amusing names, perhaps more than the evidence supporting them, served to popularize and perpetuate such theories of speech origin as the “bow-wow” theory (imitation of animal sounds), the “dingdong” theory (of harmony between sound and substance), the “pooh-pooh” theory (of derivation from instinctive or other intense feelings and sensations). Other theories claim that speech arose as the accompaniment of movement, gesture, or ritual, and that the first more or less articulate sounds were attached to behavior in specific situations.

说话的能力。没人知道说话的能力是如何开始的。这些有趣的名称，也许比支持它们的证据更有助于普及和延续说话能力起源这样的理论，如“拟声”理论（模仿动物的声音），“叮咚”理论（声音和物质之间的和声），“感叹”理论（源于本能的或其他强烈的感觉和知觉）。其它的理论认为，说话的能力是伴随着运动、姿态，或仪式出现的，而且或多或少第一个明确表达的声音与特定情境中的行为有关。

The great social changes of Neolithic times created speech and language as they are now. Such specialized occupations as weaving and pottery required greatly enlarged vocabularies. The change from the nomadic life of food gathering and hunting to a more settled and sedentary life of food raising and cultivation brought about greater social stratification, surpluses (and wars over them), and thus civilization (derived from the Latin word for “city”). Language was adapted to fulfill new needs—for keeping state stores (literally “statistics”), for observing seasons and weather, and for constructing elaborate mythologies to explain and perpetuate the art, science, and religion of the newly developed civilizations.

新石器时代重大的社会变革创造了像现在一样的说话能力和语言。编织和陶器这样专门的职业需要大量扩充词汇。从采集食物和狩猎的游牧生活到一种提升和种植食物更稳定的定居生活的变化，带来了更大的社会阶层化和剩余（以及与它们相关的战争），以及相应的文明（源自拉丁语词汇“城市”）。改进语言以满足新的需求---为保存国家贮备（字面的意思“统计数字”），为观察季节和天气，以及为构建复杂的神话来解释并延续新发展起来的艺术、科学和宗教。

Cave and Home Arts. The craftsman can use his skills and his implements to give concrete shape and form to what animates his mind and stirs the imagination of his tribe. The flowering of the visual and plastic arts, among the late Paleolithic people (who were also versed in ceremonial dancing and some verbal arts) left its mark on the caves of Europe and the rocks of Africa and the Arctic, and scattered its figurines and ornaments in graves and campsites in many parts of the world. The intense excitement of the cave art of Paleolithic hunters merged into the more decorative, abstract, schematic, and utilitarian pottery and home art of the more settled cultures of the Neolithic herdsmen and farmers.

洞穴与家庭艺术。工匠可以运用其技能和工具对那些激活其头脑和激发其部落想象力的东西赋予具体的形状和形态。视觉与造型艺术的繁荣，在旧石器晚期的人（他们还精通礼仪性的舞蹈和一些口头艺术）在欧洲的洞穴，非洲以及北极地区的岩石上留下了印记，而且在世界许多地方的坟墓和露营地散落着雕像和装饰品。旧石器时代狩猎者对洞穴艺术强烈的兴奋融入了更多的装饰性、抽象性、示意性，以及新石器时代牧人和农人更多定居文化的实用陶器和家庭艺术。

The cave and home arts of up to 30,000 years ago exhibited the same aesthetic taste and basic handicraft technique of drawing, painting, stenciling, engraving, modeling, and sculpting known to modern man. Much of it was undoubtedly produced by specialists. Although their subject matter was mostly limited to animals and fertility and their purposes encompassed magic, wish fulfillment, and decoration as well as sheer enjoyment, the art of non-literate peoples served the functions of all artistic communication: to relate individual imagination and vision to the common consciousness of a culture.

三万年前的洞穴和家庭艺术表现出了现代人已知的对图示、绘画、制版、雕刻、造型以及雕塑同样的审美趣味与基本的手工技巧。毫无疑问，大部分都是由专家制作的。尽管他们的主题主要局限在动物和繁殖方面，而且他们的目的包括了法术，满足愿望和装饰以及纯粹的享受，但无文字民族的艺术对所有艺术的交流发挥了服务的功能：将个人的想象与视觉与一种文化的共同意识联系在了一起。

Writing. Rulers and priests accumulated private property that needed branding, marking, and counting for inventory and trading purposes. The builders and keepers of temple observatories had to record the movements of the heavens to predict the rhythm of seasons, birth, life, and death. Calendars, seals of property, and precious metals stamped with the mark of trading value (money) became the first forms of sign or picture writing. The more schematic forms of writing that could be broken down into inter-changeable parts and combined into novel patterns had to await new styles of life.

书写。统治者和祭司积累了需要品牌、标识以及为存货和贸易目的计数的私有财产。寺庙观测台的建造者和守护者不得不记录天国的运行来预测季节、出生、生命以及死亡的规则变化。日历、财产印章以及印有贸易价值（金钱）标志的贵重金属首次成为了符号或象形文字的形式。那些能分解成互换部分并且能组合成新颖模式的更为简练的书写形式不得不等待新的生活方式。

Pictogram, the pictorial accounts and records of the preliterate age, denoted things but could not make statements, issue commands, convey instructions, record contracts, or embody abstract concepts of action, time, or function. The essential requirement for the new tasks of written language was that the sign lose its purely representational character and come to encode a meaning, an abstracted fragment of experience, an idea (such as a number), a word, a syllable, and eventually the basic unit of speech, the sound.

象形文字，图示描述与文字出现以前的时代记录，表示事物但不能进行陈述，颁布命令，传达指令，记录合同，或具体表现行动、时间或职责的抽象概念。对书面语新任务的基本需要是符号失去了它纯粹的代表特征，而开始编码一种含义，一种对经验抽象的片断，一个想法（如数字），一个词，一个音节，而最终形成了说话的基本单元，声音。

As far as is known, the people of Sumer who inhabited Mesopotamia about 3000 B. C. first bridged the gap between sign writing and sound writing, although not without the help of their Indian, Egyptian, and Semite neighbors. The Sumerians invented a wedge-shaped (in Latin, cuneiform) stylus to stamp their signs on soft clay, and fortunately for history, made the sign virtually imperishable by baking the clay. Cuneiform script employed over distinct characters and required a special caste of professional scribes. It greatly influenced the sign language of Egyptian hieroglyphics (“sacred writing”) and the scripts of other trading partners of Sumer, who spoke different languages and recognized different imagery. These cultural development and contacts eventually led to the further simplification and syllabification of script, the association of signs with the sounds and writing and the development of the alphabet (see also ALPHABET).

据我们所知，大约公元前3000年居住在美索不达米亚的苏美尔人首先缩小了手语与声音书写之间差距，尽管得到他们印度、埃及和闪米特人邻居的帮助。苏美尔人发明了一种用手写笔将他们的符号印在软质粘土上的楔形文字（拉丁文中，楔型文字），而对历史来说，幸运的是通过烘烤的粘土使符号几乎流芳百世。楔形文字使用一些不同的字符，并需要一个特殊的职业书记员阶层。它极大地影响了埃及象形文字（“书写神圣”）的符号语言，而苏美尔人其他贸易伙伴的手稿，他们说着不同的语言，识别不同的意象。这些文化的发展和联络方式最终导致了手写体进一步的简化和音节的划分，符号与声音和书写的联系以及字母的发展。（也可参阅字母表词条）。

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW TECHNOLOGIES

Movable type, paper, ink, and the handpress are ancient Far Eastern inventions that reached Europe (or were reinvented there) in the 15^th century. Laurens Coster, a printer in Holland, and the better known Johann Gutenberg in Germany applied movable type to the handpress about 1450. Soon the new process spread to other countries. An academic press was set up at the Sorbonne in Paris, and in 1470 printed romances were published in Lyon, France. William Caxton established his press in England in 1477. Within some 70 years, a tract by Martin Luther sold more copies in 5 day than 1,000 scribes could have produced in the same time.

新技术的发展

活字、纸张、墨水以及手动印刷机是古代的远东发明，于15世纪达到欧洲（或是在欧洲彻底改造）。劳伦斯·科斯特，一位荷兰的印刷商，而更知名的是德国的约翰·古腾堡大约在1450年将活字应用到手动印刷机上。不久，新工艺传播到了其它国家。在巴黎的索邦大学建立了一个学术出版社，而1470年，在法国的里昂出版了印刷的传记体文学。1477年，在英格兰威廉·卡克斯顿建立了他的出版社。在大约70年间，马丁·路德的一本小册子在5天内卖出的数量超过了1000名书记员在同一时间所能生产的分数。

Mexico had its first press in the 1530’s and the American colonies had one 100 years later. Occasional newssheets printed in Venice sold for a small coin called a gazzeta; the first English newspaper was the London Gazette (1665). Similar organs of mostly commercial intelligence, called coranto, appeared in Amsterdam and England around 1621, and the first English daily paper was the Daily Courant (1702). After an abortive start in 1690, American newspaper publishing began with the Boston News Letter in 1704, and achieved daily continuity and success in Philadelphia in 1784 with the Pennsylvania Packet and Daily advertiser.

16世纪30年代，墨西哥拥有了它的第一台印刷机，而美洲殖民地在100年后也拥有了一台。在威尼斯偶尔印刷的新闻传单只售一枚小硬币，被称为gazzeta；第一份英文报纸是伦敦公报（1665年）。类似的主要商业情报被称为柯兰托，大约于1621年出现在阿姆斯特丹和英格兰，而第一份英文日报是《每日新闻》（1702年）。1690年失败开始后，美国的报纸出版始于1704年的波士顿《新闻报》，并于1784年在费城伴随着《宾夕法尼亚消息和每日广告报》取得了每日的连续性和成功。

The increasing speed and decreasing unit cost of printing from movable type made production for an enlarged market a commercially attractive proposition. The “wisdom” of the priest, the king, the scholar, the lord of the manor, and, eventually an entire ruling class or even a generation of elders could be challenged by younger men and women, who now had access to essentially the same sources of wisdom---and power.

活字印刷速度的提高和单位成本的降低使市场销售为目的的生产成为了一种商业上具有吸引力的命题。祭司、国王、学者以及庄园领主，最终整个统治阶层，甚至老辈的一代人的“智慧”可能会受到现在基本上已获得了同样智慧---和力量来源的年轻男女的挑战。

The next big technological leap forward came with the application of steam power. During the lifetime of James Watt (1736—1819), the inventor of the steam engine, steam drove the German-made presses of the London Times, printing 1,100 copies an hour , an amazing figure at the time. Soon even faster presses printed from type cast in molds (stereotype). But the type was till set by hand until Ottmar Mergenthaler introduced the first Linotype typesetting machine to commercial use in 1886. French-made equipment used a German process to produce low-cost newsprint from wood pulp, replacing paper made by hand from rag stock. By the end of the 19^th century, giant paper rolls fed electrically driven rotary presses printing 96,000 copies of a 12-pages New York paper in one hour.

下一个重大的技术飞跃来自蒸汽动力的应用。在蒸汽机的发明者詹姆斯·瓦特（1736年至1819年）的一生中，蒸汽驱动了由德国制造的伦敦《泰晤士报》的印刷机，一小时印刷1100份，在当时这是一个惊人的数字。不久，更快的模子铸型（铅板印刷）于用印刷。但这种类型依然是用手工操作的，直到奥特马尔·默根特勒在1886年将第一台连诺排字机引入商业运营。法国制造的设备使用了一种德国流程，从木桨中生产低成本的新闻纸，替代了用手工从破布桨中制造纸张。到19世纪末，巨大的纸卷输入由电力驱动的转轮印刷机，一小时可印刷9.6万份，12页的纽约报纸。

Printing served to standardize written communications and spread them everywhere roads, rails, and ships would reach. Its standardizing effects were applied to private communication through the practical development about 1866 of the typewriter (invented in England about 1714). Typewriting and typesetting by machine speeded the process of writing or composing type by hand. Rapid printing compressed the time needed to mass-produce written messages, and to make them readily available for public distribution in millions of copies.

印刷有助于使书写的交流标准化，并将它们扩散到公路、铁路和船舶可以到达的每个地方。大约在1866年，通过打字机（大约于1714年在英格兰发明）的实际应用，其标准化的影响已应用于私人的交流。用机器打字和排字促进了手工书写或排字的过程。快速印刷压缩了需要大量生产书面信息的时间，而且使它们实现了以百万份的数量向公众发售。

The Conquest of Signaling-Time. The invention of typewriting and typesetting did not affect the time needed to deliver the message. Ancient methods of transportation had become more reliable but not much faster until the steamship and the steam locomotive began the real conquest of signaling-time, and, with that, of new empires.

征服信号配时。打字机和排字的发明并不影响需要传送信息的时间。古老的交通方法变得更加可靠，但直到蒸汽船和蒸汽机车开始真正的征服信号配时，并征服了新的帝国时，速度才加快了许多。

Signaling-time is the time it takes a message to go from its source to its destination. Historically the conquest of signaling-time meant speeding a response or compliance from a distance (the Greek word for distant istele); thus it meant increasing effective control across space.

信号配时就是从源头传递信息到目的地所花费的时间。历史上征服信号配时意味着从远处加速回应或服从（希腊语意思是远处的）；因此，它意味着增强对跨空间的有效控制。

Rapid signaling at a distance began with hand signs, smoke signal, flags, drumbeats, horn-blowing, flashing mirrors and lanterns, cannon shots, bacons, carrier pigeons, and signaling positions (semaphores) of various kinds. Most early uses of telesignaling were adapted to the needs of identification and of traffic by sea and land (Napoleon spanned 1,000 miles with a relay of 224 semaphore stations). In the last conflict between distant enemies in the pre-telegraph era, the U.S. congress declared war in 1812 not knowing that the British had already revoked their offending ban on neutralist shipping to French-held Europe. In the last battle of that war, Andrew Jackson’s men shot nearly 2,000 British soldiers storming New Orleans, neither side knowing that the Treaty of Ghent ending the war had been signed two weeks earlier. News still crossed the ocean by sailing ship. The high cost of signaling over distance was still measured in human time—and lives.

远距离的快速信号开始于手势、烟雾信号、鼓声、吹号、闪光的镜子和灯笼、炮声、熏烟、信鸽以及各种发信号的地点（信号站）。大多数早期使用的远距离信号都是为适应识别的需要，以及海洋和陆地（拿破仑用224个信号站的接力横跨了1000英里）交通的需要。在前电报时代，在与遥远的敌人之间的最后一次冲突中，美国国会于1812年宣战，却不知道英国已经撤销了他们禁止中立国船只前往法国控制的欧洲的违规禁令。在那场战争的最后一次战役中，安德鲁·杰克逊的士兵差不多射杀了突袭新奥尔良的2000名英国士兵，双方都不知道早在两周前已经签署了结束战争的《根特条约》。消息依然是用帆船跨洋传送。远距离传递信息的高成本依然是以人类的时间---以及生命来衡量。

Telegraph. Experimenters from the early Greeks to Benjamin Franklin knew how to store and discharge electricity, but not how to control or use it. The work of Volta, Galvani, Ampere, Joseph Henry, Faraday, Clerk Maxwell, Heinrich Hertz, and others led to the basic understandings on which the electric age rests. Several people tried the voltaic battery as a source of current for transmitting signals. But Samuel F. B. Morse, a professional painter, scholar of literature and design, and inventor, first hit upon the idea of sending long and short impulses, coded to represent letters, through 10 mile of wire strung around and around in his workshop, and patented his invention in 1837. The first telegraph, which was built in 1844 on a government grant, tapped out Morse’s historic message: “What hath God wrought?”

电报。从早期希腊人到本杰明·富兰克林已知道了如何存储和释放电流，但却不知道如何控制或使用它。瓦特、伽尔伐尼、安培、约瑟夫·亨利、法拉第、克拉克·麦克斯韦、海因里希·赫兹以及其他一些人的工作开启了有关电时代基础的基本理解。一些人试图将伏打电池组作为一种传送信号的电流源。但塞缪尔F. B. 摩尔斯，一位职业画家，文学和设计的学者以及发明家，第一个想到用编码代表字母，通过在工作室一圈一圈长达10英里的导线发送长短脉冲的想法，并于1837年将他的发明申请了专利。 1844年，在政府的支持下制造了第一台电报机，敲击出了摩尔斯的历史信息：“上帝创造了什么？”。

Telephone. Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876 while working toward a harmonic telegraph designed to send several distinct signals over the same wires (a problem Edison was the first to solve). The American Telephone and Telegraph Company was founded in 1885 to build long-distance lines, and service between New York and Chicago opened in 1892. Coded signals and the human voice could now travel between distant points.

电话。亚历山大·格雷厄姆·贝尔于1876年发明了电话，当时工作正朝着谐波电报努力着，目的在于在相同的导线上发送不同的信号（爱迪生第一个解决的问题）。美国电话和电报公司成立于1885年，为的就是建设长途线路，并于1892年开通了纽约与芝加哥之间的服务。编码信号和人类的声音现在已能在遥远的各点之间传播。

Radio. Communication by wire is essentially private, personal, and confined. Communication by means of the wireless radiation of signals may be cast more broadly---that is, broadcast. Radio waves were the subject of intense interest and speculation after Heinrich Hertz demonstrated that they could pass through solid objects. Guglielmo Marconi used his understanding of both Hertzian waves and the Morse code to send the first wireless message in 1895, and Aleksandr Popov of Russian reported a similar experiment in the same year. In 1906, Reginald Fessenden, a Canadian who had worked for Edison, first transmitted the human voice by radio. Lee De Forest invented an improved vacuum tube that made “wireless telephony” an instant sensation, and in 1910 a Caruso performance was broadcast from the Metropolitan Opera House to astonished radio “hams” and ship operators. De Forest delivered the first newscast when he announced the presidential election returns of 1916.

无线电。通过导线的交流基本上是私人、个人和受限的。凭借信号的无线辐射进行交流可以传播地更为广泛---即广播。在海因里希·赫兹证明了无线电波能穿过坚硬的体物之后，它就成为了人们强烈的兴趣和猜测。古列尔莫·马可尼应用他对海因里希电波和摩尔斯编码的理解，于1895年发送了第一条无线信息，而在同年，俄罗斯的亚历山大·波波夫也通报了相同的实验。1906年，曾为爱迪生工作过的加拿大人雷金纳德·费森登用无线电首先传送了人类的声音。李·德·弗雷斯特发明了一种改进的真空管，因此使“无线电话”具有了瞬间的感觉，而在1910年，一场由大都会歌剧院播出的卡鲁索表演，震惊了无线电的爱好者和船舶运营商们。当德·弗雷斯特宣告1916年的总统选举结果时，他首次进行了新闻广播。

Strangely, radio’s “lack of privacy” was considered more a nuisance than a historic opportunity. But when Frank Conrad, a Westinghouse researcher, sent out test signals of music and his own patter (what would later be called a disc-jockey program), he was IMPRESSED by the audience response he received. And when a department store began to advertise the sale of radio receivers for “those who want to tune in to Dr. Conrad’s popular broadcasts,” Westinghouse stumbled into the future. In 1919 it joined General Electric in the formation of the Radio Corporation of America (RCA; later, the courts ordered both General Electric and Westinghouse to rid themselves of RCA stock). RCA decided to use radio broadcasts to boost the sale of its receivers. Regularly scheduled broadcasting began with reporting Harding’s victory over Cox in the presidential election of 1920. Once constrained by the need for privacy, radio now became harnessed to the demands of publicity. From two stations in Pittsburgh and Detroit in 1920, the number of U. S. radio stations grew to 571 in five years, to more than 2,000 in 30 years, and to 5,800 in 60 years.

奇怪的是，无线电的“缺乏隐私”被认为是更让人麻烦的一件事，而不是一个历史机会。但当弗兰克·康拉德，一位西屋电器的研究人员发出了音乐和他自己不间断的说话（后来被称为了电台的音乐节目主持人）的测试信号，听众的反应给他留下了深刻的印象。而当一家百货公司开始为“那些想收听康拉德博士的流行广播”出售收音机做广告时，美国西屋电器偶尔走入了未来。1919年它加入了通用电器，形成了美国广播公司（美国广播公司；后来法院命令通用电器和西屋电器出售美国广播公司的股票）。美国广播公司决定利用无线电广播来推动其收音机的销售。在1920年的总统选举中，定期播出的广播节目始于哈丁战胜考克斯的报道。曾经因隐私的需要受到限制，现在无线电已变得迎合起公众的需求。1920年，从匹兹堡和底特律的两个电台，在5年内美国广播电台的数量增加到571个，在30年中超过了2000个，而在60年里达到了5800个。

Recording Image and Sound. Signals sent as quick as a flash may be no more lasting than a flash, and signaling time saved at the expense of a durable record was not all gain. While some technicians worked on shrinking time, other took on the problem of storing the sound message and visual image for reproduction at a later time.

记录影像与声音。像闪电一样快的发送信号可能不会比一个闪电更慢，而以节省持久记录为代价的信号传递时间并非都是收益。虽然一些技术人员在为缩短时间而工作，但另一些技术人员却在解决后来声音信息复制存储以及视觉影像的问题。

Photography. But much had to happen before the visual image could be recorded and transmitted. Even before sound was captured by electricity, the ancient projecting devices of “camera obscura” and “magic lantern” acquired a new significance. Alchemists had known that silver compounds darken on exposure. 1802, Thomas Wedgwood, an Englishman, used a lens to focus an image on paper coated with fresh silver nitrate. The image lasted until further exposure to light blackened the entire picture. Could the picture be preserved? Could it be copied, printed, or transmitted by wire? Could motion be captured, projected from a visual record, joined with sound, and sent through the air? All these questions were answered within about 100 years of the first fleeting glance at a recorded image. The answers required not only further optical and chemical progress, but also a convergence of all communication arts and techniques.

摄影术。在可以记录和传送视觉影像前一定发生许多事情。甚至在电捕捉声音之前，“暗箱”和“幻灯”古老的投影设备已获得了新的意义。炼金术士知道银化合物曝光时会变暗。1802年，一位英国人，托马斯·韦奇伍德使用一个透镜在涂有未使用过的硝酸银的纸上聚焦影像。该影像持续曝光，直到光线使图像完全变暗。能保存该图像吗？它能被复制，印刷或用导线传送吗？能捕捉到运动，从视觉记录中投影，与声音一起，并通过空中传送吗？所有这些问题都在大约100年中记录影像的首次匆匆一瞥中得到了回答。这些答案不仅需要进一步的光学和化学的进步，而且需要所有交流的艺术和技术的汇集。

The French chemist Joseph Nicephore Niepce became interested in lithography. In 1822 he succeeded in obtaining a durable image on a glass plate and etching it onto pewter. His partner, a Parisian artist named Louis Daguerre, used mercury vapor to develop an image on a copper plate treated with iodized silver, and fixed the picture with a warm solution of salt. An Englishman, William Henry Fox Talbot, found a way to reduce the time of exposure and to produce positive paper copies. Both Daguerre and Talbot announced their inventions in1839, and within a year, the American artist-inventor Samuel F. B. Morse was taking pictures on a Manhattan rooftop. Soon dozens of “daguerreotype galleries” opened in New York and spread over the country. A man no longer had to be rich to have his likeness immortalized or to send it to the folks back home. An new tool enlarged man’s power to record momentary, faraway, inaccessible events; to produce images; and to reduce, enlarge, and store pictures and information of all kinds. (Mathew Brady photographed leading Americans and some 3,500 civil War battle scenes.) In 1888, with processes and emulsions greatly simplified, George Eastman marketed his Kodak camera. Frederic E. Ives produced a photoengraving of a line drawing for the Cornell student paper in 1877. The next year he created halftone engravings by using tiny dots to indicate shadings. By 1897 the fast rotary presses could use halftone photographs, line cuts on wood, or zinc etchings, and photography was launched as a popular art, a branch of science, and a form of journalism.

法国化学家约瑟夫·尼塞福尔·尼埃普斯对光刻技术产生了兴趣。1822年，他成功地在一块玻璃板上获得了持久的影像，并将其蚀刻到白腊上。他的合伙人，一位名叫路易·达盖的巴黎艺术家使用汞蒸汽在碘化银处理过的一块铜板上进行显影，并用温盐溶液进行定影。一位英国人，威廉·亨利·福克斯·塔尔博特发现了一种减少曝光时间并生成正片拷贝的方法。达盖和塔尔博特于1839年宣布了他们的发明，而不到一年，美国艺术家—发明家塞缪尔F. B. 摩尔斯就在曼哈顿的屋顶进行了拍照。很快，许多“银版摄影法画廊”在纽约开业并遍布全国。一个人不再非得富有才能使他的肖像永久的保留或者才能寄给家乡的人们。一种新工具扩大了人记录短暂的、遥远的、无法企及事件的能力；扩大了人生产影像的能力；并且可以缩小、放大和存留照片以及各种各样的信息。（马修·布雷迪拍照了最重要的美国人以及大约3500个南北战争的战斗场景）。1888年，随着流程和感光乳剂的大为简化，乔治·伊士曼推销起他的柯达照相机。1877年，弗雷德里克E. 艾维斯为康奈尔大学学生报制作了一种线描照相制版的方法。第二年他用小点来显示阴影，创造了半色调雕版。到了1897年，快速轮转印刷机已可以使用半色调雕版，在木料上的线条凸版，或锌版，于是摄影术开始成为一种流行艺术，科学的一个分支以及一种新闻形式。

No sooner had photography become practicable that it joined the already developed art of pictorial animation. Animation is image fused with imagination to give the illusion of motion. The key to motion pictures is the persistence of an image on the eye’s retina just long enough for a quick series of still pictures to merge into continuous action in the brain. A complex web of inventions, experiments, trials, and errors, in search of suitable light sources, cameras, films, emulsions, and projection machines, led in 1894 to the first commercial showing of motion pictures using Edison’s Kinetoscope. The film of the Corbett-Fitzsimmons fight of 1897 toured the United States and made rich men out of its exhibitors. English and French technicians improved projection machines and techniques. Operators of penny arcade peep shows, vaudeville “flickers,” and nickelodeons grew rich on an American market of uprooted humanity massed in the city slums, immigrants speaking many languages but endowed with a common vision, who were, as a contemporary account put it, “below the reach of even the yellow journals.” With sound added in 1926, with improvements in technique, color, scope, and dimension, and with their entry into television, films became the most international of the popular arts and the most personal and least literary medium of mass communication.

摄影术一旦成为现实，它就加入了已经发展起来的图形动画艺术。动画是影像与想象融合而产生的运动幻觉。电影的关键是在眼睛视网膜上持续维持足够长的时间，让一系列快速静止的图像在大脑中组合成连续的动作。为寻找合适的光源、相机、胶片、感光乳剂和放映机，一个涉及发明、实验、尝试和试错的复杂网络在1894年使用爱迪生的活动电影放映机进行了商业电影的首次放映。1897年，科贝特—菲茨西蒙斯冠军争夺战的影片在美国巡演，而且影片使它的放映者成为了富人。英国和法国的技术人员改进了放映机和技术。廉价的街边西洋景，“一闪而过”的杂耍，以及五分钱影院的经营者们，在美国城市贫民窟背井离乡人们聚集的市场中都变得富有起来，移民说着各种语言，但都拥有共同的愿景，正如当时的一种说法，他们“甚至连黄色杂志都接触不到”。随着在1926年加入了声音，随着技术、色彩、范围和尺寸的改进，以及随着它们进入电视，电影成为了最国际化的流行艺术，以及在大众交流中最个人化的，最缺少文学性的媒介。

Phonograph.  One of those who experimented with solutions to the problem of recorded sound was Thomas A. Edison. As a telegraph operator, he invented the automatic transmitter and the “quadruplex” capable of sending four messages at once. In 1877, Edison used a diaphragm telephone transmitter to record sound vibrations on a rotating was cylinder and then to reproduce the spoken word by picking up the vibrations from the groove on the cylinder with a needle.

留声机。那些尝试解决记录声音问题人中的一个人就是托马斯A. 爱迪生。作为一名报务员，他发明了自动发报机和能够同时发送四条信息的“四路多工系统”。1877年，爱迪生使用隔膜电话送话器在一个旋转的圆筒上记录声音的振动，然后用一根针从圆筒的凹槽中捕获振动来复制说过的单词。

The phonograph was a success in the penny arcades. Edison even tried to link sound and image in his Kinetoscope peep show. A practical system for coupling recorded sound with moving image came in the late 1920’s, when a narrow optical track on the side of the motion picture film was used to reproduce the sound by means of a photoelectric cell in the projector. After World War II, magnetic means for recording sound gradually replaced phonographic.

留声机在街边游戏厅获得了成功。爱迪生甚至试图在他的西洋景活动电影机中将声音和影像连接在一起。20世纪20年代末出现了一种将录制的声音与影像耦合的实用系统，当时电影胶片侧面的一束狭窄的光学声道通过放映机的一个光电管来再现声音。二次大战后，记录声音的磁性手段逐渐替代了留声机的方式。

Television.  Recorded image followed signal and sound in instantaneous transmission when, in 1904, the first wire-photo was sent from Munich to Nuremberg. Less than 20 years later pictures were televised between New York and Philadelphia. Regular television broadcasts began over the General Electric Station in Schenectady, N. Y., in 1928. Daily broadcasting of facsimile newspaper began St. Louis, Mo., in 1938, but this form of electronic journalism was never commercially exploited. Television reached its highest pre-World War II development in Britain. After the war it swept the United States; the number of American TV stations rose from 11 in 1947 to nearly 800 by 1980, penetrating 98% of American homes.

电视。1904年，当从慕尼黑到纽伦堡发送第一张有传真线照片时，记录的影像伴随着信号和声音瞬间传送。之后不到20年，在纽约和费城之间，画面已可通过电视播放。1928年，在纽约斯克内克塔迪的通用电器电视台开始了定期的电视播出。1938年，密苏里的圣·路易斯开始了每天的传真报纸广播，但这种电子新闻形式在商业上从未被利用过。在英国，电视达到了它在二战前发展的最高水平。战后，它席卷了美国；美国电视台的数量从1947年的11家上升到1980年的几乎800家，渗透到了98%的美国家庭。

Nothing has dramatized the speed, reach, and international scope of modern communications more than the events following the assassination of President John F. Kennedy in 1963. Jack Ruby’s shooting of Lee Harvey Oswald was viewed not only in Dallas, Texas, but also in the living rooms of America. Margaret L. Coit’s account (Saturday Review, April 15, 1967) of the aftermath of the assassination tells of the greatest single simultaneous experience that the United Sates, and the world, had ever shared:

没有什么能比1963年约翰F. 肯尼迪总统遇刺后所发生的事件使现代交流的速度、波及面以及国际范围更戏剧化了。杰克·鲁比枪杀李·哈维·奥斯瓦尔德的事件不仅在德克萨斯的达拉斯可以看到，而且在美洲的客厅中也可看到。玛格丽特L. 科伊特对刺杀后果的描述（1967年，4月15日《星期六评论》），讲述了美国，以及世界曾经共享过的最为重要的唯一同步经历：

“Often the participants in the tragedy did not know as much as those who watched their television sets through the four harrowing days. Even Lyndon Johnson tuned in Walter Cronkite to find out what was going on. Seventy-five million people knew before the Kennedy part knew it that priests, the harbingers of death, were on their way to Parkland. The Kennedys did not realize that hundreds of millions were grieving with them, that flags were falling all over the world, that the House of Commons had adjourned, and services were being held at Westminster and St. Paul’s, that the Russian radio was playing dirges, that all Ireland was bowed in prayer, that the youth of Berlin was moving through the streets, their torches blazing against the night.”

“通常，这场悲剧的参与者并不像看电视，经历了四天痛心日子的观众知道的那么多。甚至林登·约翰逊想知道发生了什么事也要收听沃尔特·克朗凯特的节目。”在肯尼迪团队知道了死亡的预兆，牧师们还在赶往帕克兰的途中之前，七千五百万人已知道了这个消息。肯尼迪家族没有意识到有数以亿记的人们与他们一同悲伤，全世界都在降旗，下议院休会，而威斯敏斯特和圣·保罗大教学正在准备仪式，俄罗斯的无线电在播放哀乐，整个爱尔兰都在祈祷，柏林的青年人正穿行在街道上，他们的火把在黑夜中燃烧着”。

Instantaneous magnetic recording and playback of video and audio signals serve well television’s unique capacity to witness the spontaneous and fix it in memory as it happens, and thus to make history. Lighter and cheaper videotape recorders, telephones equipped to provide sight, sound, and even a permanent record at the push of a button, and giant computers capable of retrieving image, sound, and text have closed most of the technological gaps that had fragmented communication ever since man’s personal vision was first given EXPRESSION on a cave wall.

瞬时磁性记录和播放视频和音频信号很好地发挥了电视独特的见证自发事件的能力，并在事件偶然发生时将其存放在存储器中，从而创造了历史。更加轻便和便宜的磁带录像机、电话设备只需按下一个按钮就可提供视觉、声音甚至是永久的记录，而大型计算机能够检索图像、声音以及文本，结束了自人类的个人视觉首次在洞穴的墙壁上进行表达所生产碎片化的大部分技术差距。

                                                                                       2022年6月7日译

（译者注：该部分词条位列《大美百科全书》1985年版，第7卷，第423至427页）

待续部分：World Communication世界的交流； Regulation规则; Printing印刷, Films电影, Broadcasting广播; THE STUDY OF COMMUNICATION交流研究;；THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION交流理论； Meaning含义,；Political theories政治理论；Psychological Theories心理学理论,；Sociological Theories社会学理论。