1.1.4 Behaviorism 行为主义论

S1(psychological)     R1(utterance)     S2 (utterance)      R2 (behavior)

Behaviorism行为主义 a theory of psychology which states that human and animal behavior can and should be studied in terms of physical processes only. It led to theories of learning which explained how an external event ( a stimulus) caused a change in the behaviour of an individual ( a response) without using concepts like “mind” or “ideas”, or any kind of mental behaviour.心理学一个理论，说明人和动物的行为只能且必须从生理角度来研究，受它影响而产生的学习理论解释了人是如何受外部事件（刺激stimulus）的影响产生行为变化（反应response）而不需要“意向“或”意念“或任何内心行为等概念。

（也就是说：人的行为变化是由外部刺激直接而来的，并没有经过“思考“等过程”）

和语义学的关系：据我理解：言语是由生理刺激而形成的。

1.1   Lexical meaning

Sense and Reference 意义和指称

sense: a dog: a domestic canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form.

Reference: the dog. a particular dog, we all know which one it is.

Sense: the place which a word or phrase ( a Lexeme) holds in the system of relationships with other words in the vocabulary of a language. For example, the English words “bachelor” and “married” have the sense relationship of “bachelor”= never married.指在一种语言的词汇中，一个词或片语（即词位）与其他词语发生关系时所处的地位。例如，英语单词bachelor单身汉和married已婚的意义关系是“bachelor”= never married. （感觉象：denotation外延） 

Reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for. （语义学中）指词与所代表的事物、行为、事件及特性之间的关系。

Reference in its wider sense would be the relationship between a word or phrase and an entity in the external word (see denotation). For example, the word “tree” refers to the object “tree” (the referent).从广义上来说，指称是指词或片语与外部世界中的实体之间的关系。

Reference in its narrower sense is the relationship between a word or phrase and a specific object, eg. a particular tree or a particular animal. For example, Peter’s horse would refer to a horse which is owned, ridden by, or in some way associated with Peter. 从狭义来说，指称是指词或片语具体事物，如具体的树和具体的动物之间的关系。例如Peter’s horse指peter拥有的，他所骑的或从某方面来说与他有关的马。