加载中…教学行动研究样板模式和论文框架
(2012-09-13 14:57:55)
标签：
杂谈 |
分类： 科研课题行动研究 |
通过合作学习提高高中英语写作课的实效性
Improving Senior English Writing Class Through Cooperative Learning
摘要:
本文从合作学习的概念入手，分析了不同时期中外学者对合作学习概念的定义，总结出了不同定义间的共同内涵和作为教学策略的主要特点。人类的社会性使得合作关系贯穿着整个人类发展的历史，合作学习作为一种学习方式也源远流长。但作为一种教学理论及策略体系，合作学习在上个世纪70年代起得到了迅猛的发展，并形成了合作学习的不同流派和相应的教学方法。合作学习的基本理念和理论基础离不开心理学领域动机理论的发展。本文也分析了合作学习的意义及发展现状，我国中学英语新课程改革的要求，促使在中学英语课堂教学实践中实施合作学习的教学方法，其实施策略包括划分合作学习小组，确定小组合作目标，组内成员分工协作，确定评价指标四个主要方面，这为合作学习方法的实际运用指出了方向。本文重点分析和探究合作学习策略在高中英语写作课堂内的实践情况。文章首先分析与高中英语写作教学密切相关的写作教学法，从结果教学法、过程教学法、体裁教学法到过程体裁教学法，体现的不仅是教学方法的变化，更重要的是反映了教学理念的不断发展和完善。目前高中英语写作教学依然普遍存在着一些令人感到困惑的问题，如何解决这些问题，就有了本文的合作学习策略指导下的高中英语写作课教学实验。
关键词:合作学习;高中英语写作;小组合作;新课程标准
ABSTRACT
Key words: cooperative learning, senior English writing, group cooperation, new curriculum
引言································································································································ 3
第一章 合作学习的理论概述··························································································· 4
1. 1合作学习的概念································································································································ 4
1.1.1斯莱文的定义······························································································································ 4
1. 1. 2约翰逊兄弟的定义··················································································································· 4
1. 1. 3沙伦的定义································································································································ 5
1. 1. 4王坦的定义································································································································ 5
1. 1. 5王红宇的定义···························································································································· 5
1.1. 6林生傅的定义····························································································································· 5
1. 2合作学习的历史································································································································ 5
1.2.1合作学习在西方的历史············································································································· 5
1.2.2合作学习在中国的历史············································································································· 6
1. 3合作学习的主要流派及方法··········································································································· 6
1. 3. 1学生分组学习(STL)··················································································································· 6
1.3.2游戏竞赛法((TGT)······················································································································· 6
1.3.3小组辅导个别学习(TAI )············································································································ 6
1.3.4合作性读写一体化(CIRC )·········································································································· 6
1.3. 5切块拼接法改进型(Jigsaw II )·································································································· 6
1.3.6共同学习法(LT)···························································································································· 6
1.3. 7合作性冲突法(CC)······················································································································ 7
1.3.8小组探究法(GI )··························································································································· 7
1.3.9结构法((SA)·································································································································· 7
1. 4合作学习的基本理念························································································································ 7
1. 4. 1合作学习的互动观··················································································································· 7
1.4.2合作学习的目标观····················································································································· 7
1.4.3合作学习的师生观····················································································································· 7
1.4.4合作学习的形式观····················································································································· 8
1.4.5合作学习的情境观····················································································································· 8
1.4.5小组合作学习的评价观············································································································· 8
1. 5合作学习理论基础···························································································································· 8
1.5. 1集体动力理论····························································································································· 8
1.5.2社会互赖理论······························································································································ 8
1.5.3控制理论······································································································································ 8
1. 5. 4社会凝聚理论···························································································································· 9
1.5.5认知精制理论······························································································································ 9
第二章合作学习的发展现状及实施策略·········································································· 9
2. 1合作学习的发展现状························································································································ 9
2. 2新课程改革对合作学习的要求······································································································· 9
2. 3合作学习的实施策略························································································································ 9
2. 3. 1划分学习小组···························································································································· 9
2. 3. 1. 1分组的原则····························································································································· 9
2.3.1.2小组的规模······························································································································ 10
2. 3. 2确定小组合作目标················································································································· 10
2. 3. 3组内成员分工协作················································································································· 10
2. 3. 4确定合作主要评价指标········································································································ 10
第三章 高中英语写作的教学现状·················································································· 10
3.1高中英语写作主要教学法·············································································································· 10
3.1.1结果教学法································································································································ 11
3. 1. 2过程教学法······························································································································ 11
3.1.3体裁教学法································································································································ 11
3. 2高中英语写作教学中普遍存在的问题························································································ 11
3. 3新课程改革对高中英语写作的要求···························································································· 11
第四章合作学习指导中学英语写作················································································ 11
4. 1实验准备··········································································································································· 11
4.1.1实验目的···································································································································· 12
4. 1. 2实验假设·································································································································· 12
4. 1. 3实验方法·································································································································· 12
4. 1. 4实验对象·································································································································· 12
4. 2过程和方法······································································································································ 12
4. 2. 1划分合作学习小组················································································································· 12
4. 2. 2确定小组合作目标················································································································· 13
4.2.3组内成员分工协作··················································································································· 13
4. 2.4合作学习的过程监控·············································································································· 13
4.2.5教学案例···································································································································· 13
4. 3数据分析和结论······························································································································ 13
4. 3. 1实验前测和写作学习的问卷调查······················································································· 13
4. 3.1 . 1.实验前测······························································································································· 13
4. 3.1. 2.英语写作学习的问卷调查结果······························································································ 14
4. 3. 2实验后测和问卷调查············································································································· 14
4. 3. 2.1实验后测································································································································ 14
4.3.2.2合作学习的问卷调查结果······································································································· 14
4.3.3数据分析和结论······················································································································· 14
4. 3. 3. 1配对样本t检验及结论·········································································································· 14
4.3.3.2.描述性统计······························································································································ 14
结论······························································································································· 15
参考文献······················································································································· 15
引言
中学英语教学包括了听说读写译等几个有机部分，缺一不可，不可偏废。听和读为语言输入，说写译则为语言输出。……合作学习是否能提高高中英语写作的实效?从哪些方面反映出合作学习的效果?这是本文要解决的问题。
第一章 合作学习的理论概述
1. 1合作学习的概念
合作学习策略(Cooperative Learning)或协作学习(Collaborative Learning )是一种颇具创意的教学理论及策略体系;年代中期至80年代中期取得实质性进展，初兴于20世纪70年代的美国，在70并在世界范围许多国家广泛应用。目前，它己广泛运用于美国、加拿大、以色列、德国、、英国、澳大利亚、荷兰、日本、尼日利亚等国的大中小学教学(王坦，2002b: 4)。从20世纪80年代末90年代初开始，我国教育学者也开始接触合作学习并对这一理论进行了实验与研究。但究竟什么是合作学习?不同时期的教育学者从不同角度给出了各自的定义。国外主要合作学习领域的研究者对合作学习所作出了如下定义:
1.1.1斯莱文的定义
合作学习的主要代表人物之一，美国约翰斯·霍普金斯大学的罗伯·斯莱文
1. 1. 2约翰逊兄弟的定义
美国明尼苏达合作学习中心的约翰逊兄弟(Johnson& Johnson, 1994)认为，“合作学习就
1. 1. 3沙伦的定义
以色列特拉维夫大学的著名教育心理学家沙伦(Sharan, S)认为，合作学习是组织和促进课堂教学的一系列方法的总称。在学习过程中，学生之间的合作是所有这些方法的基本特征。在课堂上，同伴之间的合作是通过组织学生在小组活动中实现的，小组通常3-5人组成。小组充当社会组织单位，学生们通过同伴间的相互作用和交流展开学习，同样也通过个人研究进行学习(转引自王坦，2002b : 5 )。沙伦对合作学习的定义在强调过程的同时，也强调小组成员的个人研究，是个体和团队学习相结合的学习方式。
1. 1. 4王坦的定义
山东省教育科学研究所所长王坦研究员(王坦，2002a: 23)认为:“合作学习是一种旨在促…….
1. 1. 5王红宇的定义
我国学者王红宇认为:“所谓合作学习，就是指课堂教学以小组学习为主要组织形式，……(王红宇，2000: 19)。
1.1. 6林生傅的定义
我国台湾学者林生傅认为:“…….”(转引自王坦，2002b : 6) 。
综上所述，国内外专家和学者对合作学习的理解和定义尽管不尽相同，因而形成了许多流派，但是我们依然能从他们所下的定义中看到合作学习共同的内涵，即:
第一，……
1. 2合作学习的历史
人类是具有社会性的群居动物，合作关系一直贯穿着整个人类历史。从几百万年前茹毛饮血的原始社会开始，“在大自然中求生存最基本的法宝，一为工具的发明和使用;二为互助合作，团结众力共同求生。”美国著名的科普学者卡尔·齐默把这两点称之为工具和盟友，并认为互助合作是人类社会化、智能化的关键因素。
1.2.1合作学习在西方的历史
在西方社会，合作的观念可以追溯到古罗马时代，公元前一世纪昆体良学派就提出了学生可以从互相交流中受益的思想。…….
1.2.2合作学习在中国的历史
二千多年前，军事家孙子就提出了天时、地利、不如人和的观点。合作学习的思想，也…….
1. 3合作学习的主要流派及方法
从师生关系角度出发的合作教育思潮，汇集了多个国家的著名教育理论，比如前苏联的合作教育学、美国罗杰斯的人际关系理论、前联邦德国的交往教学论、美国斯莱文的合作学习理论等。经过几十年的发展，合作学习策略已经发展形成一些颇有影响的合作学习法流派。
1. 3. 1学生分组学习(STL)
学生分组学习(Student Team Learning，即STL)是斯莱文及其同事在美国霍普金斯大学研究开发的学习方法的总称。…….
1.3.2游戏竞赛法((TGT)
游戏竞赛法(TGT,即Teams Games Tournaments，与STAR在许多方面很相似，但以学习竞赛的形式代替了独立测验，成绩计算时没有提高分。…….
上述两种学习方法是可以广泛运用到多类学科的。
1.3.3小组辅导个别学习(TAI )
小组辅导个别学习(TAI，即Team Assisted Individualization)和合作性读写一体化(CIRC)是分别针对数学和语文学习特点开发的小组合作学习方法。……。
1.3.4合作性读写一体化(CIRC )
合作性读写一体化(CIRC)主要运用于语文学习。与数学不同的是，语文学习涉及听说读写技能的培养，而每种技能的教授方法又各不相同。……
1.3. 5切块拼接法改进型(Jigsaw II )
这是斯莱文等人在20世纪so年代中期将切块拼接法做了改进后形成的合作学习方法。它适用于理解概念、原理而不是掌握技能的学习目标。…….
1.3.6共同学习法(LT)
共同学习法(Learning Together, LT)始于20世纪80年代中后期，是约翰逊兄弟等人在明尼苏达大学开发的。……
1.3. 7合作性冲突法(CC)
合作性冲突法(CC，即Cooperative Controversy)也是约翰逊兄弟开发的合作学习方法之一。这是约翰逊兄弟沿袭了柯尔伯格的道德发展的研究方法。…….
1.3.8小组探究法(GI )
小组探究法(GI，即Group Investigation)始于杜威的思想，如教育学生主动学习，人们学会一起工作和生活，学会尊重他人和理解他人。依据这一思想，……
1.3.9结构法((SA)
结构法(SA，即Structural Approach )是卡甘近年来提出的新的合作学习方法，使合作学习的推广工作呈现新的局面。包括三步谈话(Three-Step-Interview ) ,配对检查(Pairs Check )、小组讨论(Group Discussion)等，由于本文篇幅有限，不做赘述。
1. 4合作学习的基本理念
合作学习的基本理念体现在小组合作学习中的互动观、目标观、师生观、形式观、情境观和评价观。
1. 4. 1合作学习的互动观
合作教学的互动不仅存在于师生之间，还是教师与教师、学生与学生之间的互动。“定位教学活动是一种复合活动，包括单向型的教师把信息传递给学生的过程;双向型师生互动和反馈;多向型的师生之间、生生之间相互作用;成员型的师生平等参与和互动的过程。合作学习还是把互动的中心更多地聚焦在了生生之间关系上”(王坦，2002a)。…….
1.4.2合作学习的目标观
合作学习是一种目标导向活动。“在教学目标上，注重突出教学的情意功能，追求教学在认知、情感和技能目标上的均衡达成”(王坦和高艳，1996)。……
1.4.3合作学习的师生观
并不取决于教师的善良愿望，而是取决于在教学过程中教师和学生活动的性质，
他们之间关系的性质。”……
1.4.4合作学习的形式观
合作学习的观点是“教学应当兼顾教学的个体性与集体性特征，应当把个别化与人际互动有机地结合在一起。因此，在教学形式上，合作学习强调以集体授课为基础，以合作学习小组活动为主体形式，力求体现集体性与个体性的统一”(王坦，2002b: 75)。在我国，合作学习基本流程可归纳为:…….
1.4.5合作学习的情境观
约翰逊兄弟在道奇(Deutsch, M.)合作与竞争的理论基础上建立了合作学习理论，他们指出课堂中存在着竞争、合作与个人单干(或译作个体化学习)三种目标结构，即一是竞争出“最好”的，一是单独朝一个目标努力而忽略其他学生的学习，一是合作学习且对彼此的学习有兴趣、有归属感(Johnson &Johnson,1994)。这就是三种不同的教学情境。约翰逊等人认为，…….
1.4.5小组合作学习的评价观
“不求人人成功，但求人人进步”是合作学习的真谛，…….
1. 5合作学习理论基础
道奇(Deutsch, M. )、勒温(Lewin, K. )、哥拉斯(Glasser, W.)和约翰逊兄弟等人从不同的理论视角提出相互依赖的合作关系是如何促进学习的。
1.5. 1集体动力理论
集体动力理论(group dynamics )，本意为群体动力理论，……
1.5.2社会互赖理论
社会互赖理论(Social Interdependence Theory)是在集体动力理论基础之上发展而来。道奇(Deutsch, M.)是勒温(Lewin, K.)的弟子，在20世纪40年代末提出了合作与竞争的理论，认为……
1.5.3控制理论
控制理论，…….
1. 5. 4社会凝聚理论
1.5.5认知精制理论
第二章合作学习的发展现状及实施策略
2. 1合作学习的发展现状
合作学习己成为当代主流教学理论与策略之一，……
2. 2新课程改革对合作学习的要求
2. 3合作学习的实施策略
合作学习是一种旨在促进学生在异质小组中相互合作，达成共同的学习目标，并以小组的总体成绩为奖励依据的教学策略体系(王坦，2002 : 23 )。这决定了合作学习的实施策略主要包括划分合作学习小组，确定小组合作目标，组内成员分工协作，确定评价指标这四个方面。
2. 3. 1划分学习小组
2. 3. 1. 1分组的原则
对学生进行合理的分组是开展合作学习的先决条件。与传统的班级授课不同，学生学习的基本单位不是班级而是小组。如何划分学习小组?合作学习的倡导者大体秉承“组内异质、组间同质”的原则。“组内异质”，是保证组内各成员之间的差异性和互补性，保证在课堂教学过程中组内成员的主动参与和互助合作。所谓异质，就是……
2.3.1.2小组的规模
Aronson认为合作学习小组可由3至7人构成，……。在班型偏大时分组的原则应当是使组数最少化，因为小组数量越多越容易失控(张修海，2006:75一76)。
由于我国高中班型较大，通常50人左右，小组成员应适当增加。……
2. 3. 2确定小组合作目标
小组合作目标是凝聚组内成员的巨大力量，是推动小组成员积极活动的动力，也为小组成员的活动指明了方向。……
2. 3. 3组内成员分工协作
组内成员的分工协作是合作学习的基本合作形式。分工时要把握的原则是:……
2. 3. 4确定合作主要评价指标
合作学习的评分标准与传统学习教学评价方式最大的不同，是合作学习方式中引进了“基础分”、“提高分”的概念。正是这种评分制度，使“不求人人成功，但求人人进步”的目标成为可能。……
第三章 高中英语写作的教学现状
3.1高中英语写作主要教学法
半个世纪以来，国外写作理论研究日趋成熟。其中，就写作教学方法而言，20世纪60年代之前，结果教学法居于领导地位。20世纪70年代出现了过程教学法，80年代出现了体裁教学法，80年代中期兴起了内容教学法，近年来又出现了任务教学法(罗明礼，2008: 96-99)。我国的高中英语写作教学自然也借鉴和融合了这些理论。
3.1.1结果教学法
结果教学法(Product Approach)的理论基础是……
3. 1. 2过程教学法
过程教学法(Process Approach)诞生于20世纪60年代末70年代初，当时Hymes的交际能力理论、Halliday的功能语言理论以及Widdowson的语言交际观促进交际法的产生，……，“将写作过程视为一种极为复杂的心理认知过程和语言交际过程”( Messenger & Taylor, 1989 ) 。……
3.1.3体裁教学法
20世纪80年代，“体裁教学法”(Genre-based Teaching Approach)在美国、新加坡和澳大利亚等地盛行，至今还是受较广泛的欢迎。……
3. 2高中英语写作教学中普遍存在的问题
人们描述传统的高中英语教学时经常会用到的词汇是哑巴英语，似乎指的是传统的英语课堂教学忽视英语听说的教学而偏重读写译能力的培养。实际上，……
3. 3新课程改革对高中英语写作的要求
高中英语课程的目标以义务教育一至五级的目标为基础，……
第四章合作学习指导中学英语写作
4. 1实验准备
为了使该实验能顺利进行，先确定实验班和对照班的原始成绩……
4.1.1实验目的
探索把合作学习应用于中学英语写作的日常教学中去，……
4. 1. 2实验假设
通过小组合作学习写作的方式，端正学生的写作态度，培养学生的写作兴趣，降低学生的写作焦虑，提高学生的写作效率，最终提高学生的写作能力。
自变量:合作学习教学学习策略
因变量:学生的写作能力
对象变量:性别，年龄，初始成绩，
随机变量:教学法，时间等
4. 1. 3实验方法
所用的实验方法有观察法，课堂录音，问卷调查，对比试验。为提高试验的效果，这些试验方法是交叉使用，而不是单独使用，并且在使用这些实验法时，应该注意以下事项:……
4. 1. 4实验对象
本人所执教的高一(14)班、高一(15)班，其中高一(14)班是对照班，
高一(15)班是实验班。高一(14)班由25个男生、27个女生，共54名学生构成。高一(15)班由27个男生、25个女生，共54名学生构成。
4. 2过程和方法
实验时间及进度安排:2008年9月—2009年3月，除去寒假时间，共5个月。对实验班的具体操作分为以下四部分:
4. 2. 1划分合作学习小组
划分合作学习小组的出发点是组内异质，组间同质。“异质分组是……越趋于均衡”(张修海，2006: 75-76)。而Vaughn Set等学者说:“灵活的分组形式可以……。”因此，在做分组的准备工作中，笔者…...
4. 2. 2确定小组合作目标
根据高中英语课程标准制定的目标，高中一年级学生在学习四个模块后，应达到六、七级的要求(参看本文3. 3 )，本校要求达到七级要求。……
4.2.3组内成员分工协作
“责任到人”是斯莱文、卡甘、约翰逊兄弟诸合作学习倡导者在阐释合作学习基本要素时唯一用词相同之处，……(马兰、盛群力，2008: 29-34)。
4. 2.4合作学习的过程监控
…….通过合作学习的运行程序，可以看到创设合作学习的情境，教授给学生合作技能，以及生生互动…….
4.2.5教学案例
在研究的过程中，笔者通过过程体裁法作为写作策略、小组合作学习作为学习策略来进行写作教学，主要涉及到……
议论文案例
4. 3数据分析和结论
4. 3. 1实验前测和写作学习的问卷调查
4. 3.1 . 1.实验前测
在九月中旬，高一年级的学生统一做了一次周末练习，其中写作题目如下:
……
4. 3.1. 2.英语写作学习的问卷调查结果
实验之初，在实验班进行关于写作学习的问卷调查，内容主要涉及…...
4. 3. 2实验后测和问卷调查
4. 3. 2.1实验后测
笔者将两个班的这次成绩作为后测成绩……
4.3.2.2合作学习的问卷调查结果
在合作学习的实验完成之时，笔者在实验班发放54份合作学习的问卷调查……
4.3.3数据分析和结论
4. 3. 3. 1配对样本t检验及结论
4.3.3.2.描述性统计
……
由上表可以看到，实验班的均值17. 8148>对照班的均值17. 2963，且实验班的最低值10>对照班的最低值8，另外对照班的标准差3. 41268>实验班的标准差2.92726，这表明实验班的进步明显大于对照班，且实验班离散率小，即各分数段之间的差距小，学生的两极分化小。综上所述，合作学习对提高中学生的写作成绩是有实效的。
结论
在高中英语写作教学中采用合作学习的方式，可以提高英语写作课的实效性。本文的实验和问卷调查充分说明合作学习可以改变学生的情感态度，学生的写作热情，学生的写作信心。减少了独自面对英文写作困难时的心理焦虑和畏难情绪，在合作学习过程中，学生可以及时、有效地解决写作中生成的问题，并极大地优化了学习策略，改善了认知策略和调控策略。同时，学生提高了课堂参与度，提高了课堂效率，并能学习借鉴同伴的学习方式，在遇到问题时积极寻找解决的途径。
另外，……
参考文献
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……
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