语言学课后习题名词解释
(2011-01-09 00:09:55)
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文化 |
Design features: the defining properties
of human language that distinguish it from any other systems of
communication
a,Arbitrariness there is no logical
(motivated or intrinsic) connection between linguistic signs such
as sound, word , sentence and their
meaning.
b,Duality/double articulation The system
of language has two sets of structures or two levels of structures
or patterning, the lower/secondary one of sounds and the
higher/primary one of meaning. Sounds can be grouped into
meaningful words, sentences, discourses.
c. Productivity/Creativity Language is productive or creative in
the sense that users can understand and construct/produce meanings
and/or sentences they have never heard
before.
d Displacement Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.
e,Cultural transmission Language is
culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than
by instinct.
A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses
facts observed to form rules.
A linguistic study is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules
for “correct” behavior. Do/don’t say
X.
Synchronic study---- description of a
language at some point of time (modern
linguistics)
Diachronic study---- description of a
language through time (historical development of language over a
period of time)
Langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by a speech community; a set of conventions abided by all the members of the speech community; the generalized rules of the language used by the people
Parole: the concrete use of the
conventions or application of the rules.
第二单元
Competence: a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system
of rules, or the ideal language user’s knowledge/ internalized set
of rules of his language
Performance: the actual use of language in specific situation, or language user’s actual realization of his knowledge/rules in his utterances in specific situation
Functions: (1) referential (to convey
message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its
own sake), (3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and
emotions), (4) conative (to to persuade and influence others
through commands and requests), (5) phatic (to establish communion
with others) , and (6) metalingual function (to clear up intentions
and meanings)
(1) Phatic function Language is used for establishing an atmosphere
or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging
information or ideas.
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are
produced, transmitted, and
perceived.
Articulatory Phonetics (发音语音学) , which
deals with the identification and classification of individual
sounds, is the study of the production of speech
sounds.
Phonology is the study of the sound
patterns and sound systems of languages.
A phoneme is a phonological unit. It is abstract. It is distinctive. It is not a particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. A phoneme can be analyzed into smaller components simultaneously, e.g. /p/ into -voiced, +bilabial, and +plosive. The elements that a phoneme can be analyzed or segmented into are called distinctive features.
Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates
of vibration of the vocal cords.When pitch, stress and length
variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they
are collectively known as intonation.
The International Phonetic Alphabet
(IPA)--- A standardized and internationally accepted system of
phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one
letter to represent one speech sound.in the production of
vowels
manner of articulation —the degree of obstructions, complete,
partial, or a mere narrowing
place of articulation —the different (parts) vocal organs where the
obstruction occurs
Cardinal vowels(基本音): a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.
Vowel glides: there are audible changes in
the quality in articulation.
Coarticulation(协调发音): the process of
articulation in which simultaneous or overlapping articulation is
involved.
assimilation rule (同化规则) (3-2)Assimilation
may result in nasalization (e.g. tan, can ), dentalization (e.g.
tenth, ninth), velarization (e.g. sink, mink), devoicing (e.g. has
to), etc. Thus there exist nasalization rule, dentalization rule,
velarization rule, devoicing rule,
etc.
第三单元
Morpheme: the smallest unit in terms of relationship between form
and meaning, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or
drastically altering the
meaning.
Allomorphs(词/语素变体): alternative shapes or phonetic forms of a morpheme that are used in different situations,
Bound morphemes(粘连词素): those morphemes
that cannot occur alone but with another morpheme, e.g. un, ly,
ful, ness, al
Root(词根): the base form of a word that
cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity, e.g.
reason in unreasonable.
Stem(词干): any morpheme or combination of
morphemes to which other morphemes can be added, e.g. reason and
reasonable in unreasonable.
Affix(词缀): morphemes that can be used only
when added to another morpheme (a root or a
stem)
Lexeme: the smallest abstract unit
underlying in the lexical system of a language, which appear in
different forms in different grammatical
contexts.
derivational affixes(派生词缀): the affixes
the addition of which to a root or a stem results in derivation of
new words, e.g. mini-, un-, -tion,
-fy
inflectional affixes(曲折词缀): the affixes the addition of which to a
root or a stem results in manifestation of finiteness, aspect,
number, person, and case, e.g. -s, -’s, -ing,
-ed.
Inflection is the manifestation of
grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional
affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which
do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are
attached.
Grammatical words: words that express grammatical meaning, e.g. conjunction, preposition, article, and pronoun
Lexical words: words that refer to substance, action, and quality, e.g. nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs.
Open-class: a class whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
CompoundThe term compound covers a wide
range of different relations between lexical words. On the whole,
it refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical
morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single
form.
Derivation(衍生) refers to the way by adding
affixes to roots or stems to create new words. To be simple,
derivation is the way by which words are created by adding
derivational affixes.
Blending: a complex form of compounding in
which two words are blended by joining the initial part of one word
and the last part of another, or the initial parts of two
words.
Acronyms: words formed from the initial
letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc.
pronounced as words rather as sequences of
letters;
Back-formation(逆构词法): an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.
Loanblend (混合借词): a process in which part
of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is
fully borrowed, e.g. coconut.
Loanshift (转移借词): a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but
the form is native. One of the meaning of “bridge” is borrowed from
Italian.
Loss The loss of sound can first refer to
the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the
phonological system. The sound /x/ in old English has been
lost.
Assimilation the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound.
第四单元
Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are
combined to form sentences in a language or simply, the study of
the formation of sentences.
Category(范畴): the defining properties of
units like nouns and verbs. Concord/agreement (一致): the requirement
that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship
should agree with each other in terms of some
categories.
Construction(结构): any syntactic string of
words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain
complex lexemes.
Constituent(成分): any linguistic form or group of linguistic forms in a construction.Constituent: any linguistic form or group of linguistic forms in a construction.
Recursiveness refers to extension of
sentences by such means as coordination and subordination,
conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and
paratactic
Coordination refers to the linguistic phenomenon that two or more categories of the same type are grouped together with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or.
Subordination refers to the process or
result of linking linguistic units so that they have different
syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other and usually a
constituent of the other.
Embedding refers to the means by which one
clause is included in the sentence (main clause) in syntactic
subordination.
Cohesion: relations of meaning that exist within the text.)
第五单元
Conceptual meaning(概念意义): logical, cognitive, denotative
meaning
Sense(意义)/sense relationship: the relationship between the
linguistic elements themselves (mostly the words), intra-linguistic
relationships, e.g. big—small.
Synonymy (同义关系) : a technical term for the
sameness relation between words.
Gradable antonymy (可分等级的反义关系Characteristics of gradable antonyms1 They are gradable, different in terms of degree. The assertion of one is not necessarily the denial of the other. There may be intermediate degrees(2) They are graded against deferent norms. The criterion varies with the object described.(3) In a pair, the one for the higher degree serves as the cover term called “unmarked” and the covered term is called “marked”. It is the cover term that is usually used. If the covered term is used, there is something odd or unusual.
2)Complementary opposite(互补性反义词) Characteristics: These antonyms are ungradable. The assertion of one means the denial of the other and the denial of one means the assertion of the other. There is not intermediate term. (2) The norm in this type is absolute. The same norm is used for all the things it is applicable. E.g. the norms used to separate the male from the female are the same with both human beings and animals. (3) There is no cover term for the two members of a pair.
3)Relational/ converse
opposites(关系反义词)Characteristics: (1)There is no positive-negative
relationship between the words of a pair but reversal relationship
between them. ‘if A sells to B, B buys from A; if A is B’s husband,
B is A’s wife.’ (2) One word of the pair presupposes the other.*He
is a son. *He is a husband. He is a
child--adult.
Hyponymy(上下义关系) refers to a paradigmatic
relation between a more specific lexeme and a more general
lexeme.The upper term like
flower or animal is called the
Propositional logic /propositional
calculus/ sentential calculus: the study of the truth conditions
for propositions: how the truth of a composite proposition is
determined by the truth value of its constituent propositions and
the connections between them.
A proposition (命题)is what is expressed by a
declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a
statement.
Predicate logic/predicate calculus studies the internal structure of simple proposition.