REALISM AND NATURALISM, in art. The term realism and naturalism refer in art to certain connections between the artist’s creation and the real world. The distinction between the terms is far from clear. Their shared sense is the idea that a work of art, whether a painting, sculpture, drawing, or print, is in some essential way tied to the appearance of its subject as seen in nature. In short, both refer to the presence of a significant likeness as a distinct and intentional feature of the work.

艺术中的现实主义与自然主义。现实主义与自然主义这个术语在艺术中是指在艺术家的创作与现实世界之间的某些联系。两个术语间的区别还不完全清晰。无论是绘画、雕塑、素描或版画，一件艺术品的观念是它们共享的感觉，都以某种非常重要的方式与其主体在自然中所见的样貌相关联。简言之，两者是指一种显著相似性的呈现，是作品的一种明显的和有意图的特征。

In a sense, extreme realism or naturalism can be regarded as the polar opposite of total abstraction—that is, pure non-objectivity. Realism and naturalism explore in detail actual particulars of the visual experience, while abstraction dispenses with that experience in favor of a self-contained formal order.

在某种意义上，极端的现实主义或自然主义可被视为完全抽象的，截然不同的对立面—换言之，可被视为纯粹的非客观性。现实主义与自然主义详细地探究视觉体验的实际细节，而抽象无需那种有利于自成体系的正常次序体验。

Prehistoric and classical Art.  The Stone Age art of cavemen show such remarkable skill in catching the form and movement of bulls, horses, deer, and other animals that it is often described a realistic or naturalistic. Later, in antiquity, there was a distinction between the idealized forms of such 5^th century B. C. Greek sculptors as Myron and Polycleitus and the extreme realism of paintings by the master Zeuxis, their contemporary. His picture of a boy carrying grapes was reported to be so “real” that birds were said to come and peck at the fruit. Since no major Greek painting from this period survives, we know only that likeness to nature was apparently highly prized in classical times.

史前和古典艺术。洞穴人的石器艺术在捕捉公牛、马、鹿和其它动物的形态和运动中展现出非凡的技艺，因此常常被描述成一种现实主义或自然主义的艺术。后来，在古代，在公元前5世纪希腊雕塑家这种理想的形式之间有了区别，如迈伦和波利克利特斯，以及由同时代大师宙克西斯画的极端现实主义绘画。据报道他画的一个男孩拿着葡萄的绘画是如此的“真实”，以至于据说鸟儿都来啄食这些水果。由于这一时期的希腊主要绘画没有保存下来，因此我们只知道，在古典时代显然非常珍视与自然的相似性。

Late Medieval and Renaissance Art.  European art during the late Middle Ages was transformed from a rather abstract, formal style to a more human, natural one. The great master of this change was Giotto di Bondone of Florence, whose deeply felt depiction of the lives of Christ and the Virgin in the Arena Chapel, Padua (about 1306), were far more lifelike than the flat, stylized work of the earlier Italo-Byzantine manner. In his own day, Giotto’s works were thought to be the very counterfeit of nature. These paintings hardly seem so today, but they clearly suggest the more naturalistic styles of the coming Renaissance.

中世纪晚期和文艺复兴时期的艺术。在中世纪晚期的欧洲艺术从一种相当抽象的，正式风格转向了一种更人生性化，更自然的风格。这一转变的重要大师是佛罗伦萨的乔托·迪·邦多纳，他对帕多瓦竞技场小教堂中（大约1306年）基督和圣母生命感受的深刻描绘要比早期意大利-拜占庭风格的平淡、程式化作品逼真得多。在他自己的时代，乔托的作品被认为是对自然的极端伪造。今天看来，这些绘画似乎并非像说得那样，但它们显然暗示了即将到来的文艺复兴时期的自然主义风格。

During the 15^th century, European artists became increasingly involved in the nature of appearances and in reproducing them in both painting and sculpture. Notable progress toward greater realism was the development of a scientific system of perspective. Another step was an increasingly accurate knowledge of anatomy, as in the drawings of Leonardo da Vinci, which led to a new mastery of the human figure. By the 16^th century, European art had achieved a high degree of realism, but it was altered in a variety of ways to suit other purposes, such as the new idealism of the High Renaissance and the intricate perfections of Mannerism.

在15世纪，欧洲的艺术家们越来越多的涉及到表象的本质，并且在绘画和雕塑中再现它们。迈向更加现实主义的显著进步是一种透视法的科学体系的发展。另一个步骤是对解剖学的了解越来越准确，如列奥纳多·达·芬奇的素描那样，它导致了对人类形象新的把握。到16世纪，欧洲的艺术已达到了高度的现实主义，但它被以各种方式改变来满足其它的目的，诸如文艺复兴鼎盛期的新现实主义和风格主义那难以理解的完美。

19^th Century.  In art history the term “realism” is most often applied to the art of the 19^th century French painter Gustave Courbet, whose large compositions profoundly shocked the French art public. For him, realism seems to have meant doing away with the artificiality of much academic art and looking at the world honestly, straightforwardly, and from the evidence of personal experience. Thus, his huge picture The Burial at Ornans (1849; Louvre), which shows a village funeral with an open grave, is a powerful evocation of rugged country people and their simple ceremonies.

19世纪。在艺术史中，“现实主义”这个术语最常用于19世纪法国画家居斯塔夫·库尔贝的艺术，他的巨幅作品极大地震撼了法国的艺术大众。对他而言，现实主义似乎意味着摒弃许多学院艺术的不自然，并真诚地，直截了当地，而且从个人体验的证据出发来观察世界。因此，他的巨幅画作《奥尔南的葬礼》（1849年；卢浮宫），展现了一个敞开墓穴的农村葬礼场景，对强健而坚毅的乡村人们和他们简朴的仪式是一种极具感染力的呼唤。

Courbet’s technique hardly suggested nature more perfectly than that of his academic contemporaries, but his attitude toward the “real” world was new and strikingly uncompromising. The term “realism” (used in literature as well) was promptly applied to Courbet by favorable critics, particularly Champfleury. Another of Courbet’s supporters, Fernand Desnoyers, said simply, “Realism is the true painting of objects.” Other painters, such as Jean Francois Millet, were often described as realists, but their relationship to realism lay chiefly in their painting of ordinary folk doing ordinary things in rural settings.

库尔贝的技巧比起他学院的同时代人几乎并未暗示更完美地表现自然，但他对“真实”世界的态度是全新的，并且是明显不妥协的。“现实主义”（也用于文学中）这个术语很快就被赞许的评论家用在了库尔贝身上，尤其是尚弗勒里。库尔贝的其他支持者费尔南·德努瓦耶，简单地说“现实主义就是对物体的真实描绘”。其他的画家，比如让·弗朗索瓦·米勒，常常被说成是现实主义者，但他们与现实主义的关系主要在于他们的画描绘的是乡村背景中普通人在做的普通事。

By the 1860’s a new manner of painting based on the personal vision of the artist was growing in popularity among a group of gifted young artists led by Edouard Manet. While in many cases their style was less realistic in its fidelity to nature than Courbet’s, their subject matter remained rooted in ordinary life. These artists were referred to as “naturalists,” chiefly to distinguish them from the earlier realism.

到了19世纪60年代，一种基于艺术家个人视野绘画的新方法在以爱德华·马奈为主的一群有才华的青年艺术家中越来越受到欢迎。虽然在很多情况下，他们的风格在忠于自然方面没有库尔贝那么写实，但他们的主题题材依然植根于日常生活之中。这些艺术家被称为“自然主义者”，主要是将他们区别于早期的现实主义。

The final effort toward realism in the 19^th century was IMPRESSIONISM, a style used by such painters as Claude Monet to capture the effects of outdoor light by means of a palette of bright clear colors laid on in bold contrasting strokes. In IMPRESSIONISTIC paintings, the actual reality of the object yielded to the reality of the light on the object.

19世纪对现实主义的最后努力是印象派，一种像克洛德·莫奈这样的画家运用的风格，用大胆的对比笔触，通过明亮清晰的色调来捕捉室外光线的效果。在印象派绘画中，物体实际的真实让步给光在物体上的真实。

20^th Century.  In the 20^th century, various forms of realism continue alongside more abstract movements and flourish in the work of artist as different as Andrew Wyeth and Richard Estes. Wyeth deals with rural scenes and characters in a meticulous style that suggests the emptiness and vacancy of a familiar world. More “advanced” realists like Estes often use a photograph to serve as an intermediate model between the object being depicted and the painting. The subject is thus neutralized, removed from its immediate involvement with experience and transformed into a source for contemplation. A different approach to realism is the life-size sculptural figures of Duane Hanson, which are as real a colored plastic duplication and actual clothing can make them—so real, in fact, that living people standing nearby often appear somewhat artificial.

20世纪。在20世纪，现实主义的各种形式与更抽象的运动持续着，并在像安德鲁·怀斯和理查德·埃斯特这样不同艺术家的作品中繁荣。怀特用一种细致的风格描绘乡村的场景和人物，暗示了一个熟悉世界的空虚和空缺。更多“高级的”艺术家常常喜欢埃斯特在被描绘的物体与绘画之间使用照片作为一种中间模式。这样主题就被中和了，从与经验直接参与中解脱出来，转变成一种沉思的来源。一种与现实主义不同的方法是杜安·汉森的真人大小的人物，它们就像可以制作出来的彩色塑料复制品和实际的服装一样真实—实际上，如此的真实，以至于站在旁边的活人常常显得有些不自然。

                                            JOSEPH C. SLOANE

Author of “French Painting Between the Past and the Present”

                                   约瑟夫·C. 斯隆

《过去与现在的法国绘画》的作者

                               2023年2月6日译

（译者注：该词条位列《大美百科全书》1985年版，第23卷，第292页至294页）