偶然或是必然？

一位多年的张姓好友携妻开车回广东，在微信朋友圈中发回了沿途的场景和车内的镜头，我发现他还带着一只体型不大、深色、卷毛的宠物犬，询问后得知是只泰迪犬，他叫它“小六子”，显然是只公犬。这名字怎么那么耳熟？对了，曾经在深山老林中的一伙人中排座次时总会有人叫这个名字。是不是让人觉透着些匪气？

张姓好友生性开朗，幽默，只要他一出场总能让人欢快起来，引发多种有趣的话题。没想到的是他也养起了宠物犬，一向生性开朗幽默的他难道也要用宠物犬打发退休后的生活？居然还给那犬起了一个颇有些市井气息，甚至有点匪气的名字。我打趣他，建议他将名字中的那个“子”去掉，就叫“小六”多好听。你瞧人家球星贝氏家的姑娘起名“小七”，多文雅。几番回合下来，其他的好友也调侃起他，朋友圈中都是欢乐的表情。由此，我偶然想到应该将“犬”这个词条译出，以丰富爱犬人对犬的全面了解。于是，有了下列“犬”词条的翻译。

无论你是否养犬，是否爱犬，阅读该词条定有收获，尤其是在看到了文中附上的那些品种、色彩、形态各异的犬的彩色图片后。

                                                 2022年10月7日

 

DOG, a carnivorous mammal, probably the first animal domesticated by man. How or when this domesticating took place is not know with certainty, but the dog’s association with man began at least 10,000 years ago.

犬（狗），一种食肉性的哺乳动物，大概是第一种人类驯养的动物。这种驯养是如何，或何时发生的尚无法确定，但犬与人类的交往至少在一万年前就开始了。

   Dogs are found throughout the world, wherever man lives. Statements as to the size of the world dog population are little better than guesses and vary widely, but informed estimates place the number between 120 million and 150 million. In the United States, according to estimates based on projections of market research reports for certain areas of the country, the dog population is probably between 29 million and 35 million.

    在全世界，只要有人生活的地方就会发现有犬的存在。至于说到世界上犬的数量比起那些猜测好不到哪去，并且千差万别，但非正式的估计认为这个数字在1.2亿和1.5亿只之间。在美国，据对全国某些地区的市场研究报告项目的估计，犬的数量大概在2900万只和3500万只之间。

   General Characteristics.  The dog (Canis familiaris) possesses great genetic variation, and widely differing breeds can be developed from the same stock within a relatively short time. This genetic plasticity has been utilized in producing the more than 400 distinct breeds in the world today.

一般特征。犬（家犬）具有极大的基因变异，而且在相对较短的时间内，从相同的种群中可以发展出极为不同的品种。这种遗传的可塑性已被用于当今世界400多个不同品种的培育中。

   These breeds vary from those that weigh as little as 1.5 pounds (680 grams), such as the Chihuahua, to those that exceed 200 pounds (90 kg) such as the St. Bernard. Breed height also vary markedly. A toy poodle may stand only 8 inches (20 cm) high at the shoulders, whereas some great Danes and Irish wolfhounds may reach 37 inches (94 cm).

    这些犬种不同于那些体重只有1.5磅（680克）的犬种，如吉娃娃，也不同于那些体重超过200磅（90公斤）的犬种，如圣伯纳犬。犬种的身高也明显不同。一只玩具贵宾犬的肩高可能只有8英寸（20厘米），而一些大型的大丹犬和爱尔兰猎狼犬可高达37英寸（94厘米）。

   The dog’s coat, which ranges from short to long and from wiry to straight, may be almost entirely lacking, as in the Mexican hairless, or as luxuriant as that of the old English sheepdog, whose guard hairs may be 10 inches (25 cm) long.

    犬的皮毛，从短到长，从硬到直，或许几乎完全无毛，如墨西哥的无毛犬，也许像古老的英国牧羊犬一样毛发浓密，其外层粗毛可达10英寸（25厘米）长。

   Greyhounds and borzois are very long-muzzled, while pugs, pekingese, and bulldogs have “pushed-in” faces. Bulldogs have small, folded ears; German shepherds have large erect ones. A basset hound, which may be only 14 inches (35 cm) high at the shoulders may have ears that span 24 inches (60 cm) from tip to tip.

    格雷伊猎犬和俄国狼犬的嘴都很长，而巴哥、京巴以及斗牛犬都长着凹陷的脸。斗牛犬长有一对小的，折叠的耳朵；德国牧羊犬的耳朵大而直立。一只可能只有14英寸（35厘米）肩高的矮腿猎犬可能有一对耳尖对耳尖宽度达24英寸（60厘米）的耳朵。

   Dogs are digitigrades animals; that is, they walk on what is anatomically their four fingertips. The fifth finger, or thumb, known as the dewclaw, does not reach the ground. Most breeds lack dewclaws on their hind feet.

    犬都是趾行类动物；就是说，它们在解剖学上是以四指行走。第五指，或拇指被称为假蹄，并不接触地面。大多数犬种的后脚都少有假蹄。

   The dog, like man, has two sets of teeth. The 32 milk, or baby, teeth appear at about 3 to 5 weeks of age and fall out when the puppy is from 4 to 6 months old. The adult dog’s teeth which includes the molars, number 42.

    像人类一样，犬有两副牙齿。32颗乳牙，或叫婴儿牙，大约在3至5周时会长出牙齿，而且在幼犬从4至6个月大时脱落。成年犬的牙齿包含第四十二颗臼齿。

   The dog can hear pure tones of 35 kiloherz (kHz; 1 kHz=1,000 cycles per second), whereas in man, 20 kHz appears to be the top limit. The dog’s visual acuity is not especially sharp and is roughly comparable to man’s. However, dogs probably cannot perceive colors and see only shades of gray. The dog’s most important sense is that of smell. Exact measurements of this sense have been rather difficult to make, and there have been conflicting results; but it is un-questionable that the ability to track faint or old trails is an extremely sensitive one. For some substances the scenting ability of dogs is not very different from that of man, but in the detection of certain aliphatic (“fatty”) acids—acids present in the skin secretions of mammals and left behind in their track—dogs have been shown to be more than a million times more perceptive than man.

    犬能听到35千赫（千赫；1千赫等于每秒1000次循环）的纯音，而人类听到20千赫就到极限了。犬的视力不是特别敏锐，与人类的视力差不多。然而，犬可能无法感知颜色，只能看到灰色的阴影。犬最重要的感官是嗅觉感官。要精确测量这种感官很难，而且一直存在着相矛盾的结果；但毫无疑问的是，追踪微弱或陈旧踪迹的能力是极为敏感的一种能力。犬对某些物质的嗅觉能力与人类并无差别，但在检测某些脂肪质（“脂肪的”）酸---存在于哺乳动物的皮肤分泌物中的酸，以及他们留下的踪迹---犬展现了超出人类感知能力的一百万倍。

   Usefulness of Dogs.  Man has used dog for many purposes, including hunting, guarding, racing, companionship, and leading the blind. French have used dogs to locate Perigord truffle—edible fungi that grow underground. Modern narcotic officers have used dogs trained to detect drug odors in luggage and packages. St. Bernards have been used to search out snow-covered trails and warn of hidden crevasses. They have also been used to locate people buried by snow avalanches.

    犬的作用。人类使用犬有许多目的，包括狩猎、护卫、竞赛、陪伴和引导盲人等。法国人曾用犬来确定佩里戈尔松露的位置---生长在地下的食用菌。现代的缉毒人员用经过训练的犬来侦查行李和包裹中的毒品。圣伯纳犬曾被用来搜索被雪覆盖的踪迹和警告不易察觉的裂缝。它们也被用于确定被雪崩掩埋的人员。

   In earlier centuries dogs worked as turnspits to keep meat revolving over a fire, and they served as foot-warmers during services in unheated churches. The Spanish conquistadores are reported to have taught dogs to attack and kill Indians. Modern armies have used dogs to lead scouting patrols, locate wounded, carry messages and supplies, and guard bases. Sled dogs helped the Eskimos adapt to the rigors of Arctic life. The American Plains Indians used dogs to haul the travois, a primitive type of sled made by hooking two poles into the dog’s harness.

    在更早期的几个世纪中，犬被用于负责旋转烤肉叉的人，使肉在火上不断地旋转，并且在没有暖气的教堂做礼拜时当作暖脚炉。据报道，西班牙征服者曾训练犬来攻击和屠杀印第安人。现代的军队使用军犬引导侦查巡逻队，确定伤性，携带信息和物资，并保护基地。雪橇犬可帮助爱斯基摩人适应严酷的北极生活。美洲平原的印第安人用犬来拉雪橇，一种将两根杆子套在犬的系带上制作的原始雪橇。

   The use of dogs in medical research and teaching has steadily increased. Testimony before committees of the U. S. congress indicates that every year more than 3 million dogs are killed for this purpose. The demand for research dogs is so great that legislation has been enacted in both Britain and the United States to stem the traffic in stolen dogs and to foster more humane treatment of dogs in laboratories.

在医学研究和教学中，犬的使用在稳步增加。美国国会委员会的证词表明，每年有超过300万只犬因这种目的而被杀害。对研究用犬的需求是如此之大，以至于在英国和美国都立法来遏制偷犬中的交易，并在实验中促进对犬更加人道的待遇。

                                                 MAXWELL RIDDLE

                                 Author of “Complete Book of Puppy Training and care”

                                                麦克斯韦尔·里德尔

                                          “幼犬训练与护理大全”的作者

1. Origin and History of the dog

   The dog is a domesticated wolf, and its history must be traced through the ancestors of this carnivore. (It used to be thought that the jackal had contributed to the ancestry of the dog, but on anatomical and behavioral grounds this is no longer tenable.) The forerunners of the wolf, such as Aelurodon, were present in North America during the late Miocene and early Pliocene, roughly 15 million to 10 million years ago, but they are not commonly found in Europe until the Villafranchian, the earliest stage of the Pleistocene, about 2 million years ago. True wolves, however, appeared in Europe in the middle Pleistocene, some 1 million years ago, but they are not recorded from the New World until some 700,000 years later.

1、犬的起源与历史

    犬是驯服的狼，其历史一定会追溯到这种食肉动物的祖先。（人们曾经认为，豺狼对犬的祖先有贡献，但根据解剖学和行为学观点，这已经站不住脚了）。狼的先驱，比如Aelurodon（猫齿犬）是在第三纪中新世晚期和上新世早期出现在北美的，大约在1500万到1000万年以前，但它们直到维拉弗朗阶前在欧洲并不常见，大约在200万年以前的更新世的更早期阶段。然而，真正的狼是出现在更新世中期的欧洲，大约在100万年以前，但直到70万年以后它们在新大陆才被记录下来。

   In the Old World the earliest definite remains of the dog are a fossil jaw found in a cave at Palegawra, near Kirkuk in what is now Iraq. The jaw’s age, as estimated from the amount of fluorine it had absorbed from groundwater, is about 14,000 years. The earliest New World fossil, found in Jaguar Cave in Idaho, is about 10,500 years old. Such early dogs were probably used for hunting and as a source of food.

    在旧世界中，最早确定的犬的遗骸是在现在的伊拉克，靠近基尔库克帕勒嘎乌拉洞穴中发现的一块颌骨化石。根据它从地下水中吸收氟的含量估计，颌骨的年龄大约为1.4万年。在爱达荷美洲虎洞穴中发现的最早的新世界化石大约是1.05万年。如此早期的犬或许是用来狩猎和作为食物的来源。

   Identification of very early domestic dogs remains a complex task, and the results are always open to interpretation, but it is probable that the dog was the first animal to be domesticated by man. These early dogs resembled the present-day dingo, the wild dog of Australia.

    识别非常早期的家犬依然是一项复杂的任务，而结果却总有不同的解释，但有可能，犬是第一个由人类驯养的动物。这些早期的犬类似于现在澳洲野犬，澳大利亚野犬。

   Following domestication, selective breeding produced dogs of divergent forms. The ancient Egyptians, as early as 7,000 years ago, had dogs of many distinct breeds, including the forerunners of the greyhound, mastiff, and dachshund.

驯化之后，选择性繁殖生产了形态各异的犬。早在7000年前，古埃及已有了许多不同品种的犬，包括格雷伊猎犬、马士提夫犬和腊肠犬的先驱。

 

                                          JULIET CLUTTON-BROCK

                                       Institute of Archaeology, London

                                          朱丽叶·克拉顿-布洛克

                                             伦敦，考古研究所

 

2. Kinds of Dogs

   Very early in its history, the dog was bred into a variety of races, or breeds, depending on climate, certain environmental directions of selection, and the preferences of its masters.

2、犬的种类

    在其非常早的历史中，根据气候，确定的环境选择方向，以及其主人的偏好，某些犬被培育成各种各样的种类，或品种。

   The Breed.  A more formal and systematic creation of bloodlines was developed when dog breeders recognized and accepted the concept of “breed” as formulated by the horsemen of Arabia. A breed may be defined as a group of animals bred by man to possess certain inheritable qualities, including an uniform appearance, that distinguish it from other members of the same species.

犬种。当犬的饲养者认识到并接受了由阿拉伯骑士制定的“品种”概念时，一种更正式，更系统的血统培育便发展起来。品种可被定义为由人类驯养的一群拥有某种可遗传品质的动物，包括与其它同种成员进行区别的，统一的外表。

 BREED CATEGORIES

   The breeds of dogs are so varied in size, function, geographical origin, and other aspects that it is difficult to make an objective classification. However, by using original function as the main criterion, logical groupings can be made.

品种分类

    犬的品种在大小、功能、地理起源以及其它方面都如此的不同，以至于想进行客观的分类是很困难的。然而，通过使用原始功能作为主要的标准就可以进行逻辑分组。

   Sporting Dogs.  This is a multifaceted group, which is best subdivided according to the manner in which the dogs hunt.

    运动犬。这是一种多层面的分组，最好的分组是根据犬在狩猎中的方式。

   Pointing Breeds.  These are breeds that follow wind-borne scents and are frequently used in the hunting of upland birds. When a pointer detects a suitable game bird, it stops, points its muzzle in the direction of the bird, and holds this pose until the hunter arrives to flush out and shoot the bird. Many pointing breeds are also required to retrieve the fallen bird.

    指示犬。这些犬种是些跟踪随风传播气味的犬类，通常用于对高地鸟类的狩猎。当指示犬发现适宜的鸟时，它会站定，用其口鼻指示鸟的方向，并保持这种姿式至狩猎者赶到，射鸟。许多指示犬种还被要求能找回被打下的鸟。

   Retrieving Breeds.  Since pointing breeds are not always adept at retrieving and because certain kinds of hunting, such as for waterfowl, do not require game-finding dogs, hunters have developed the retriever. This is typically a very obedient dog that waits quietly by its master’s side until instructed to bring in killed game.

    寻回犬。由于指示犬种并不总是擅长找回猎物，并且因为某种狩猎，比如狩猎水鸟，不需要寻找猎物犬，狩猎者便培育了寻回犬。这是一种典型的非常顺从的犬，会静静地等在主人的身旁，直至接到指令带回被杀的猎物。

   Flushing Breeds.  These dogs, unlike the field-hunting pointers, search underbrush and reedy areas to find and flush game for the hunter. Because they flush the game themselves and do not wait for the arrival of the hunter, they are close-ranging dogs, staying as near to the hunter as possible. In many instances, these flushing breeds are not required to retrieve the game.

    驱赶犬。不像猎场的指示犬，这些犬搜索灌木丛和芦苇丛生的区域，为狩猎者寻找和驱赶猎物。因为它们自己驱赶猎物，而且不需等待狩猎者的到来，它们是近距犬，会尽可能地靠近狩猎者。在许多情况下，这些驱赶犬种并不需要寻回猎物。

   Scent Hounds.  These are breeds with an excellent sense of smell, and they generally trail ground-borne scents. According to their size and the game being pursued, they may keep the game running and circling toward the hunter or bring it to bay to wait the hunter’s gun. Though scent hounds may be used on ground-running birds, such as pheasants, they are primarily utilized in the tracking of mammals. Some breeds (the schweisshunde) are held on long leather leashes while following the blood trail of a wounded animal.

    气味猎犬。这些是拥有极好嗅觉的犬种，它们通常是追踪来自地面的气味。根据它们的大小和追踪的猎物，它们可以持续地追踪猎物，并围绕着狩猎者或将猎物驱赶至限定区域，等待狩猎者狩猎。虽然气味犬可以用于在地面奔跑的鸟类，比如野鸡，但它们主要是用于追踪哺乳动物。在追踪受伤动物的血迹时，有些品种（侦探犬）会系上一根长长的皮带。

   Sight Hounds. These dogs depend upon their vision rather than their scenting ability to locate and follow game. Sight hounds hunt far afield, and their high, narrow, supple bodies are built for speed. They were developed as hunters of swift-footed mammals.

    狩望猎犬。这些犬依靠它们的视觉而不是嗅觉能力来确定和追踪猎物。狩望猎犬在远处狩猎，它们高大、狭窄、灵活的身体就是为速度而生的。它们被培养成对付行动迅速的哺乳动物的猎手。

   Terriers.  These are courageous, vivacious dogs that were originally developed to enter the ground dens of foxes, rabbits, and other animals and drive them out to the hunters. Terriers are still used on farms to kill rats and other vermin.

    梗犬。这些犬是勇敢、活泼的犬，最初培育它们是为进入狐狸、兔子和其它动物的地下洞穴，并将它们赶到狩猎者那里。梗犬依然被用于杀灭农场中的老鼠和其它害虫。

   Mastiffs.  The mastiffs are very large, heavily built breeds that were formerly used for a variety of purposes, but now mostly serve as guard dogs or pets. The Assyrians and Babylonians used mastiff breeds in lion hunting; the Romans used them as guard dogs; and the modern Japanese still use them as fighting dogs.

    大型猛犬。大型猛犬都是结体型硕大，体格健壮的品种，以前是用于各种目的，但现在主要充当看门犬或宠物犬。亚述人和巴比伦人在狩猎狮子时曾用过大型猛犬品种；罗马人将它们用作看门犬；而现代日本人依然将它们用作战斗犬。

   Northland-type Dogs. This is a broad group, encompassing the sled dogs, the laikas, and the spitzes. These breeds all have stiff, erect ears and carry their tails curled up over their backs. The kinship with the wolf is very evident in the sled dogs, but the laikas, which are used as hunters and watchdogs, are lighter in build. The sled dogs make as little use of their voices as do the laikas, but the European spitzes—old, established watchdogs—give tongue willingly.

    诺斯兰德型犬。这是一个广泛的群体，包括了雪橇犬、莱卡犬和波美拉尼亚丝毛犬。这些犬种都有坚硬，直立的耳朵，而且将尾巴卷在它们的背上。雪橇犬与狼的亲属关系非常明显，但被用作猎犬和看门犬的莱卡犬体型较小。雪橇犬和莱卡犬一样很少吠叫，但欧洲的波美拉尼亚丝毛犬—古老的，专职的看门犬---喜欢吠叫。

   Herders.  This is the largest and most comprehensive group. For many centuries man has used these dogs to guard sheep, cattle, goats, and pigs, and he has trained many of them to actually guide, or herd, groups of these animals. In Europe, when herds of cattle had to be driven over relatively great distances to grazing grounds or slaughterhouses, tough, robust droving dogs were used to sustain the ponderous forward progress of the cattle. Today the able herding dogs such as the German shepherd, have been singled out and trained to do a variety of tasks.

    牧羊犬。这是个最大和最综合性的群体。许多世纪以来，人类用这些犬来看护绵羊、牛、山羊和猪群，而且实际上人类训练了许多犬来引导或放牧这些动物群体。在欧洲，当不得不将牛群驱赶到相对较远的牧场或屠宰场时，吃苦耐劳，强壮的驱赶犬就被用来维持牛群那笨重的前进队伍。今天，像德国牧羊犬这样能干的牧羊犬，被挑选出来，经过训练去承担各种各样的任务。

   Toys.  Small pet dogs, probably dwarfs, were known in ancient China and among the Aztecs of Mexico. The modern toy dog is not a dwarf but a correctly proportioned miniature form developed from almost any one of the previously named breed groups—the pug, for example, from the mastiff.

   玩具犬。小宠物犬，很可能是侏儒，在古代中国和墨西哥的阿芝特克人中都很熟悉。现代的玩具犬并不是侏儒，而是从先前命名的犬种群组的任何一种中培育出的适当比例的微型犬种，例如，从大型猛犬中培育的犬种哈巴犬。

另附：1、WORKING GROUP（工作组）

2、NONSPORTING GROUP（非运动组）

                                              ERICH SCHNEIDER-LEYER

                                            Author of “Dogs of the World”

                                               埃里希·施耐德-莱尔

                                             “世界上的犬”的作者

 

                                                  2022年10月7日译

（译者注：该部分词条位列《大美百科全书》1985年版，第9卷，第234页到237页）

待续部分：3. Selecting and Caring for Dogs犬的选择和照料; 4. Training训练。