4.4.1 Specifiers 标志语

先让同学给specifier定义，然后让他们推断specifier的作用，举例，一词组中，哪个是specifier

Function-----1. to make more precise the meaning of the head

           2. to mark a phrase boundary

让学生说出specifier都是哪些词：NP VP PP

Determiner--------- Ns 限定词(the, a, this, those)

Qualifier -----------Vs 修饰词 （Often, always, seldom, almost）

Degree words -------As, Ps程度词 （Quite, very, more, so）

4.4.2 Complements 补语

如我们所见，补语自身就是短语，它们为中心词提供信息，依附在中心词的右边

1.      补语可以无限 one or more complements are permitted

Eg. A story about a sentimental girl with purple umbrella

2.      各种词性都可以有补语 words that can take CP are not verbs alone. As, Ns and Ps can all take CP

3.      有些单词（如不及物动词）要求不允许有补语。而有些单词可以有各种不同的补语A certain lexical item requires a certain type of complement. For example, appear can occur without any complement, cut can occur with an NP complement and some heads in English such as put can take more than one complement.

(另：应用到句子中，就该称作“补语从句”the sentence introduced by the complementizer is call a complement clause; the construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.补语短语所在的（所嵌入的）结构就称主句)

The revised XP rule

XP               (Specifier) X (Complement*)

4.4.3 Modifiers 修饰语

Modifier: is used to specify optionally expressible properties of heads.详细说明了中心语的具有选择性的可表达的特征。

Adjective phrases: Ns’ modifiers

Adverb phrases and prepositional phrases: Vs’ modifers

The Expanded XP rule:扩展的XP规则

XP          (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)

1.1  Sentences (The S rule)

( To ask the students to make a sentence and to analyze the structure of the sentence让学生自己造个句子，然后请它们按传统语法分析下句子)

So according to the traditional analysis of a sentence, the S rule should be:

The S rule:(参考书上内容)