8.1.2. A theory of the illocutionary act 行事行为理论
1.A speaker is in most cases performing 3 acts simultaneously while making an utterance.
According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance.？ Give an example.
locutionary act言内行为:------the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and phonology.Namely.,the act of saying something :the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.言内行为指的是用句子来叙述，报告，描写。言内行为指话语过程本身，诸如：句法，词汇与发言等。
illocutionary act言外行为:-----the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention. The making of a statement, offer promise, etc, in uttering a sentence, by virtue of the conventional force associated with it. the act of using a sentence to perform a function such as command, request, etc言外行为是指说话过程中通过话语的一些约定俗成的关联力量进行陈述，承诺等。说话带有目的性。
perlocutionary act言后行为---- the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act perfomed by saying something, the bringing about of effects on the audience by means of uttering the sentence, such effects being special to the circumstances. the results or effects that are produced by means of saying sth言后行为是指行为本身就是讲话的结果。即讲话所产生的情感，思想，行动等的某种反应。
Illocutionary force: the intention or purpose underlying the act of saying sth. (speaker’s meaning)
e.g. You have left the door wide open
the locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words “you” “have” “door” “open” etc. and expressed what the words literally mean. locutionary: utterance of all the word
the illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of speaking ,i.e. asking sb. to close the door. “or making a complaint
the prelocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker’s message and sees the speaker means to ask someone to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the prelocutionary act is successfully performed. perlocutionary: the hearer close the door or his refusal to comply with the request
. Searle’s classification of speech acts
What Searle’s classfication of illocutionary acts?言外行为的划分
What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?
Speech acts theory aroused great interest among scholars in the 1960’s and 1970’s. One of those who made notable contribution to it is the American philosopher linguist John Searle. He made classification of illocutionary acts. According to Searle, speech acts fall into five general categories.
Representatives表述句-----: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true. 说话者保证所表述的命题是真的。
The film is moving.
I have never seen the man before.
Directives指令句:----- trying to get the hearer to do sth, 说话者企图让听话人做某件事。
You’d better go to the clinic
Open the window!
Commisives受约句----: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action说话者保证将来采取某些行动。
I promise to come here at 7:00
Expressives表情句------: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.表达说话者的一种心理状态。
It’s very kind of you to help me.
I’m sorry for the mess I have made
Declarations宣布句------: bring about immediate changes by saying sth.说话者的话将引起规约事态的变化。
I appoint you monitor of the class.
I now declare the meeting open
Representatives----sentences that commit the speaker to the truth of something. Typical cases are “I think the train is moving.” And “I’m sure John has stolen the book”. The degree of commitment varies from statement to statement. The commitment is small in “I guess John has stolen the book” but very strong in “I solemnly swear that John has stolen the book.”
Directives----sentences by which the speaker tries to get the hearer to do something. “I beg you to give me some help” and “I order you to do it right now” are both attempts to get something done by the hearer. Among the verbs that fall into this group are “ask” “plead” “entreat” “command”, or “advise”.
Commsives-----sentences that commit the speaker to some future action. Promises and offers are characteristic of these acts. Interestingly, warning is also a commissive , as in “If you do that again, I’ll hit you”, because it also commits the speaker to doing something.
Expressives-----sentences that express the speaker’s psychological state about something, verbs typically used for this category are “thank ” ”congradulate ” “apologize” “welcome” “deplore”.
Declaratives-----sentences that bring about immediate change in existing state of affairs. As soon as an employer says to an employee “You are fired”, the employee loses his job. Verbs often used for declarations are “name” “christen” “nominate” “point” or “declare”.
Representatives:
The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something’s being the case, to the truth of what has been said. In other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.
For example: (I swear) I have never seen the man before.
(I state ) the earth is a globe.
Directives:
Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, ordering are all specific instances of this class.
For example: Open the window! You’d better go to the clinic.
Your money or your life! Would you like to go to the picnic with us?
Commissives:
Commsives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e, when speaking the speaker puts himself under obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical cases.
For example: I promse to come. I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.
Expressives:
The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards and existing state of affairs, e.g, apologing, thanking, congratulating.
For example: I’m sorry for the mess I have made.
It’s really kind of you to have thought of me.
Declarations:
The succesful performance of an act of declarations brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.
For examples: I now declare the meeting open.
I appoint you chairman of the committee.
I fire you!
3．All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their force or strength. E.g.
(1)I swear he is the killer. (strong belief)
I believe / think he is the killer. (less strong belief)
I guess he is the killer. (weaker belief)
(2)Close the door
Will you close the door
Do you mind closing the door?
I would be very grateful if you could
Close the door!
The door is open!
The door please!
Whatever act we perform with language can be categorized into one of these 5 kinds.
8.2. The theory of conversational implicature会话含义理论
As the objective of pragmatic study is to explain how language is used to effect successful communication, conversation, as the most common and natural form of communication, has drawn the attention of many scholars.
The theory was proposed by another Oxford philosopher H. P. Grice. in his lectures under the title of “Logic and conversation”.
conversational implicature------ the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.
会话含义指话语的言外之意，往往是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意，含有绘画含义的话语，即说者能说，听者能懂的话语，需要具有以下三个条件：
A、.双方具有一定的知识。
B、说者对准则的违反一次不超过一个
C、双方都有或不反对含混，双关，歧义，讽刺，比喻，夸张，幽默等手法。
8.2.1. The co-operative principle (CP )合作原则
Grice noticed that in daily conversation people do not usually say things directly but turn tend to imply them. He coined the term “implicature” to refer to such implied meaning. And he explored the question how people manage to convey implicature, which is not explicitly expressed.
According to Grice, in making conversation, the participant must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the task. These general principle is called the cooperative Principle, abbreviated as cp.
To specify the CP further, Grice introduced four categories of maxims. (conversational maxims)
It’s interesting and important to note that those maxims are not always strictly observed. Rather, for various reasons they are of ten violated or “flouted”, to use Grice’s term. Some of these violations give rise to “conversational implicatuses”,
What are the four maxims of the CP? How does the violation of these maxims give rise to conversational implicatures?
The co-operative principle, proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis , is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.合作原则：会话是人们在交际过程中的对话。美国逻辑学家和哲学家p. 格赖斯在对会话进行考察之后认为，会话受到一定条件的制约，为了使人们的交谈不至于成为一连串的，不连贯的“胡言乱语”，会话双方或多方，需要向一个共同的目的或一组目的互相配合地作出努力。这就要求大家要遵守一定的原则，这就是格赖斯所称的“合作原则”，它包括四条准则：
The cooperative pinciple has the following four maxims:
( 1) the maxim of quantity 数量的准则
a. Make you contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange.)使所说的话正好满足当前交谈的需要的信息。
b. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.说出的话语所含的信息量既不能太多，也不能太少，只要满足交谈目的的信息量即可。所说的话不要多于需要的信息。
(2) the maxim of quality质量的准则
Try to make your contribution one that is true.
a. Do not say what you believe to be false. 所说的话要求真实。不要说自知是虚假的话。
b. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. 不要说缺乏足够证据的话。说出的话尽可能真实，有证可查，至少是自己信以为真的话。
(3) the maxim of relation 关联准则
Make your contribution relevant.
Be relevant. 要有关联。说出的话要切题，不说与主题，论题或话题无关的话。
(4) the maxim of manner 方式准则
Be prespicious and specific. 要清晰。说话清楚明白，简练而且有条理，避免含混和歧义。
a. Avoid obscurity of expression. 避免晦涩
b. Avoid ambiguity 避免歧义
c. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity) 要简练 。
d. Be orderly. 要有序。
H. P. Grice believes that there must be some mechanisms governing the production and comprehension of these utterances. He suggests that there is a set or assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls the cooperative principle (CP). He formulates the principle and its maxims as follows:
Make your contribution such is required at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the exchange in which you are engaged. And this principle is known as the COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE, or CP for short.使你所说的话，在其所发生的阶段，符合你所参与的交谈的公认目标或方向。这个原则叫合作原则，简写成CP。
The examples of CP
(1) the maxim of quantity
A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?
B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.
This is said when it is known to both A and B does know Mr.X’s address. Thus B is withholding some of the information required and is flouting the maxim of quantity. The implicature produced is “I do not wish to tell you where Mr.X lives.”
(2)the maxim of quality
A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?
B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.
This is said when it is known to both A and B is not having any health problem that will prevent him from going to a party. Thus B is saying something that he himself knows to be false and is flouting the maxim of quality. The implicature produced is “I do not want to go to your party gonight.”
(3)the maxim of relation
A: The hostess is an awful one. Don’t you think?
B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?
This is when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostness. Thus B is saying something irrelevant to what A has just said,and flouting the maxim of relation. The implicature produced is “I don’t wish to talk about the hostness in such a rude manner.”
(4) the maxim of manner
A:Shall we get something for the kids?
B:Yes. But I vote. I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
This is said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word “ice-cream”. Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The implicature produced is “I don’t want the kids to kown we are talking about ice-cream.”
8.2.2. Violation of the maxims准则的违背
Conversational implicature can only be worked out on the basis of the CP.会话含义只有依赖合作原则才能推导出来。
a. quality (tell lie; rhetoric device)
e.g. Paul is made of iron. (metaphor)
[Paul has some properties similar to those of iron.]
You are the cream in my coffee.
b. quantity
--when is Susan’s farewell party?
--sometime next month
--we’ll all miss Bill and Agatha, won’t we?
--well, we’ll all miss BILL.
[we didn’t miss Agatha]
tautology e.g. War is war. [War is cruel.]
--Bob is really very mischievous.
--Children are children
c. relation
--How do you like my painting?
--I don’t have an eye for beauty, I’m afraid
[I don’t like it at all]
--what do you think of the lecture?
--I thought the lecture had was too big.
[The lecture was dull or boring.]
d. manner
--where is your mother?
--she’s either in the house or at the market.
[I don’t now exactly where]
8.2.3. Characteristics of implicature 含义的特征
1．Calculability 可推导性
The fact that speakers try to convey conversational implicatures and hearers are able to understand them suggests that implicatures are calculable. They can be worked out on the basis of some previous information.说话人试图传达他的会话含义，而听话人也能理解这些会话含义，这一事实说明，会话含义是可推导的。它们可以根据已知信息被推导出来。
2. Cancellability 可取消性
Cancellability is also known as defeasibility.可取消性也被称为可废除性。
Implicature can be cancelled by additional clauses. 通过增加句子可以取消原来的含义。
A conversational implicature may even be cancelled simply by the situational context.会话含义也可以只通过情景语境来清楚。
3. non-detachability 不可分离性
By non-detachability is meant that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact. In other words, an implicature will not be detached, separated form the utterance as a whole, even though the specific words may be changed.不可分离性是说，会话含义是依附于话语的语义内容，而不是语言形式。因此，我们能用同义成分来替换话语的某一部分，而不改变原来的含义。话句话说就是，即使改变话语的具体词语，会话含义也不会因此从整个话语中分离出来。
4. non-conventionality 非规约性
entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.
Entailment is a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the the first follows from the falsity of the second.衍推反映的是两个句子之间的逻辑关系，第一个句子是真，第二个句子就一定是真；第二个句子是假，第一个句子就一定是假。
Entailment is a part of the conventional meaning.衍推是规约意义的部分。