第八章
Teaching aims: enable the students to have a better understanding of pragmatics and its two important theories.
Focal points: Speech act theory, the theory of conversational implicature言语行为理论，会话含义理论
Teaching difficulties: Speech act theory, the cooperative principle and its four maxims
Teaching procedure
An introduction to pragmatics
Today is Sunday.
It can be 1.an answer for “what day is it today?”
2. statement
3. complaint
4. reminder
5. criticism (reproach)
6.question “Today is Sunday?”
Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义vs 语句意义
Speaker’s meaning 说话者意义 contextual meaning语境意义
Pragmatics 语用学=meaning- senmantics
The study of language in use or the study of meaning of language in context
Pragmatics is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics. It developed in the 1960s and 1970s.
Morris first proposed the word “pragmatics” in his “Foundations of the Theory of Signs”. He said that the study of semiotics includes three parts: syntax (sign---sign); semantics (sign---word); pragmatics (sign---its user).
1977 Journal of Pragmatics published in Holland signified the start of pragmatics.
1.what is pragmatics?
Pragmatics can be simply defined as the study of language in use. It is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker or writer and interpreted by a listener or reader. It has, consequently, more to do with the analysi of what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves.
Pragmatics is comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics; its development and establishment in the 1960s and 1970s resulted from the expansion of the study of linguistics, expecially that of semantics. A general definition of pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. The scope of pragmatic study includes “speech act theory”, “context”, “principle of coversation” etc.语用学是上个世纪60，70年代兴起的语言学的一个新的分支，它所研究的是语言同其使用者之间的关系，即在一定的交际环境中如何使用语言，包括说出忽然理解实际的话语两个方面。语用学 研究范围包括言语行为，会话含义，会话结构等方面。
2. why must we distinguish using language to do something and using language in doing something?
There is a wide variety of possible uses of language, but before we survey these various uses, we must first distinguish between using language to do something and using languag in doing something. When we focus on what people use language to do, we focus on what a person is doing with words in particular situations; we focus on the intentions, purposes, beliefs, and desires that a speaker has is speaking.
3. what does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?
Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional senmantics is that whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. Pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally senmantics studies meaning in isolation from the contexts of use.
4.How is the notion of context interpreted?
Context-----context is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer.
The notion of context is essential to the pragmatics study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and hearer.语境是语用学研究中的关键概念。因为语境在很大程度上决定着话语意义或话语意义的正确理解。因此，语境可以理解为交际双方共同拥有的知识。
The shared knowledge is of two types:语境分为“上下文”和“情景语境”两类。
(1)The knowledge of the language they use
(2)The knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.
“上下文”语境是指语篇中的上文和下文，即某一词语或话语的前后左右相伴的词语。
“情景”语境是指话语说出的前因后果。说话人和听话人双方的关系，双方共同的背景知识，典故，言语意图等。
5.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?
Sentence meaning------refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstrac, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.句子意义是抽象的，是按语法规则生成的，是静态的。
Utterance meaning-----refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. It becomes an utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered or used.话语意义是指在句子意义的基础上，是句子意义在特定语境中的具体化，它体现了说话人的意图和目的，它是动态的。
Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning. Sentence meaning is concrete and context-dependent and utterance meaning is abstract and de-contextualized.
For example: the dog is barking; my bag is heaven.
If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we are treating it as a sentence.
If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.
Most utterances are complete sentences in terms of syntax, some utterances are not, and some cannot enen be restorted to complete sentences. For example, “Good morning!” “Hi!” and “Ouch!” are all utterances, which have meaning in communication. If “Good morning!” can be restorted to “I wish you a good morning,” we do not know form which complete sentences “Hi!” “Ouch!”have been derived.
6.Try to think of context in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:
(a) The room is messy.
A mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.
(b) I can’t work under untidy circumstances.
A request to someone to tidy up the circumstances.
(c) It would be good if she had a green skirt on.
A mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’s appearance.
8.1. Speech act theory 言语行为理论
a theory about language used to do things.
The theory originated with British philosopher John Austin in the 50’s of the 20th century and developed by J. R . Searle. According to this theory, we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking, thus linguistic communication is composed of a succession of acts.
What is Speech act theory?
“Speech act theory” was proposed by Jonh Austin and has been developed by his student J. Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “do things”, to perform acts.“言语行为”理论是由英国牛津大学道德哲学教授奥斯汀建立的。他认为人们说话时不仅是传递信息或描述物体，通常是言语本身即是一种行为，即以言行事。
Typical utterances are “I do”, “I name the ship Elizabeth” “I bet you six pence it will rain tomorrow.”. In these cases the uttering of the relevant words is the leading event, without the action specified cannot be done. 例如，“我答应……”“我打赌……”“就叫她小芳吧！”之类的句子就是典型的行事句。
The concept of constatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the prelocutionary act and the five categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R. Searle constitute the speech act theory. “行事话语”，“述事话语”，“言内行为”“言外行为”“言后行为”以及塞尔勒的关于言外行为的五大分类构成了言语行为理论的核心。
8.1.1. Performatives and constatives 施为句和表述句
Austin’s first shot at the speech act theory is the claim that there are two types of sentences: performatives and constatives.奥斯汀理论的第一步是认为句子有两类：施为句和表述句。
1. Performatives施为句: In speech act theory proposed by John Austin, it’s an utterance which performs an acts,
Performatives----an utterance by which a speaker does something, as apposed to a constative by which makes a statement which may be true or false. Performatives are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state and are not verifiable, in other words, performatives are utterance that “do things.”施为句是用来实施某种行为的，说话本身就是在做一件事，因此无真假之别，只有是否合适之分。
The sentences cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of these sentences is, or is a part of the doing of an action, so they are called performatives. And verbs like name are called performative verbs.句子并不是用来描述事物的，没有真假。说出这些句子是或者部分是实施某种行为。所以这些句子称为施为句。其中的动词称为施为性动词。
E.g. I name this ship Titanic. 我把这只船命名为泰坦尼克号。
I declare the meeting open. 我宣布会议开始。
I warn you to leave away (suggestion) 我警告你快离开。
I bequeach my watch to my brother.我把手表遗赠给我弟弟。
I promise to finish it in time.我答应按时完成。
I apologize. 我道歉。
I warn you that the bull will charge.我警告你这头公牛会撞人。
I bet you six pences it will rain tommorrow.我用六便士跟你打赌明天会下雨。
2.Constatives: utterances which are intended for narration, description etc.
Constative表述句------ an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false
Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verfiable and constatives bearing the truth-value.表述句是指各种陈述，其作用是描写某一件事件，过程或状态，有真假之分。
A description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. The speaker cannot pour any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these words. He must accompany his words with the actual pourin. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement. Sentences of this type are known as constatives. E.g. I pour some liquid into the tube.描述了说话人说话的同时在做什么。说话人不能通过说这句话把液体倒入试管，他必须同时做倒液体的动作。否则，我们可以说他作了虚假陈述。这样的句子叫表述句。例如：我把一些液体倒入试管。
An utterance which asserts something that’s either true or false, such as “It’s raining” “The cat is in the room”.
The felicity conditions suggested by Austin is as follows:施为句的合适条件：
A . (1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, 必须有一个相应的规约程序；
(2) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.相关的参与者和环境是合适的；
B. The procedure must be executed (1). Correctly ; (2) completely. 该程序必须正确全面地得到执行；
C. Very often,通常
(1). The relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings ad intentions ;有关人员必须有相关的思想，感情和意图。
(2) must follow it up with actions as specified. 能付诸实际行动。
Later, Austin realized that such distinction is not scientific, because all sentences can be used to do things. “saying is performing”.
In some senses, constatives are also performatives. e.g.
The cat is on the mat. (implicit performatives)
I tell you that the cat is on the mat. (explicit performatives)
I’ll be there at two o’clock. (implicit performatives)
I promise to se there at two o’clock. (explicit performatives)
Astin explored the possibility of separating performatives from constatives on grammatical and lexical criteria. 奥斯汀从语法和词汇上区别施为句和表述句。
(1)Typical performatives use first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice, and performative verbs.典型的施为句一般是第一人称单数作主语；用一般现在时；用直接语气；用主动语态；动词是施为性动词。
Exceptions: Pedestrians are warned to keep off the grass.行人禁止践踏草坪。
Turn right. 向右转。 Thank you.
You did it.你犯了罪。
(2)the most typical constative verb state, which is used to describe things, may be used to do things. In uttering “I state that I’m alone responsible”, the speaker has made a statement and undertaken the responsibility. “state” 一般被用来表述事物，是最典型的表述动词，却也可以被用来做事。说“I state that I’m alone responsible”（我声明我承担全部责任）的时候，说话人就发表了声明，承担了责任。