经典条件性作用

巴甫洛夫发现条件反射现象之后，他原本有意称条件反射现象为精神反射（psychic reflex），后来改称为条件反应。他以后的实验研究，继续采用与食物无关的各种刺激（如灯光、铃声、拍节声等），实验观察狗的唾液分泌，并分别定出四个名称：

1、引起唾液分泌的刺激（指食物）称为无条件刺激（unconditioned stimulus，UCS）；

2、食物引起的唾液分泌称为无条件反应（unconditioned response）；

3、食物之外的刺激称为条件刺激（conditioned stimulus，CS）；

4.食物之外刺激引起的反应称为条件反应（conditionedresponse）。

他发现，有些狗对条件反射任务的反应方式和其他狗不一样，因而他开始对狗进行分类，后来又按同样的规律将人划分为4种类型，并和古希腊人提出的人的4种气质类型对应起来，由此，他又向心理学领域迈进了一步。

中性刺激与无条件刺激在时间上的结合称为强化，强化的次数越多，条件反射就越巩固。条件刺激并不限于听觉刺激。一切来自体内外的有效刺激（包括复合刺激、刺激物之间的关系及时间因素等）只要跟无条件刺激在时间上结合（即强化），都可以成为条件刺激，形成条件反射。一种条件反射巩固后，再用另一个新刺激与条件反射相结合，还可以形成第二级条件反射。同样，还可以形成第三级条件反射。在人身上则可以建立多级的条件反射。

当条件刺激不被无条件刺激所强化时，就会出现条件反射的抑制，主要有消退抑制和分化。条件反射建立以后，如果多次只给条件刺激而不用无条件刺激加以强化，结果是条件反射的反应强度将逐渐减弱，最后将完全不出现。例如，对以铃声为条件刺激而形成唾液分泌条件反射的狗，只给铃声，不用食物强化，多次以后，则铃声引起的唾液分泌量将逐渐减少，甚至完全不能引起分泌，出现条件反射的消退。

巴甫洛夫认为，消退是因为原先在皮质中可以产生兴奋过程的条件刺激，变成了引起抑制过程的刺激，是兴奋向抑制的转化。这种抑制称为消退抑制。巴甫洛夫指出，消退抑制是大脑皮质产生主动的抑制过程，而不是条件刺激和相应的反应之间的暂时联系已经消失或中断。因为如果将已消退的条件反射放置一个时期不做实验，它还可以自然恢复；同样，如果以后重新强化条件刺激，条件反射就会很快恢复，这说明条件反射的消退不是原先已形成的暂时联系的消失，而是暂时联系受到抑制。消退发生的速度，一般是，条件反射愈巩固，消退速度就愈慢；条件反射愈不巩固，就愈容易消退。

在条件反射开始建立时，除条件刺激本身外，那些与该刺激相似的刺激也或多或少具有条件刺激的效应。例如，用500赫的音调与进食相结合来建立食物分泌条件反射。在实验的初期阶段，许多其他音调同样可以引起唾液分泌条件反射，只不过它们跟500赫的音调差别越大，所引起的条件反射效应就越小。这种现象称为条件反射泛化。以后，只对条件刺激（500赫的音调）进行强化，而对近似的刺激不给予强化，这样泛化反应就逐渐消失。动物只对经常受到强化的刺激（500赫的音调）产生食物分泌条件反射，而对其他近似刺激则产生抑制效应。这种现象称为条件反射的分化。

巴甫洛夫所做工作的重要性是不可估量的。他的研究公布以后不久，一些心理学家，如行为主义学派的创始人华生，开始主张一切行为都以经典性条件反射为基础。虽然在美国这一极端的看法后来并不普遍，但在俄国以经典性条件反射为基础的理论在心理学界在相当长的时间内曾占统治地位。无论如何，人们一致认为，相当一部分的行为，用经典性条件反射的观点可以作出很好的解释。

Pavlov on education

The basics of Pavlov's classical conditioning serve as a historical backdrop for current learning theories. However, the Russian physiologist's initial interest in classical conditioning occurred almost by accident during one of his experiments on digestion in dogs. Considering that Pavlov worked closely with animals throughout many of his experiments, his early contributions were primarily about animal learning. However, the fundamentals of classical conditioning have been examined across many different organisms, including humans.The basic underlying principles of Pavlov's classical conditioning have extended to a variety of settings, such as classrooms and learning environments.

Classical conditioning focuses on using preceding conditions to alter behavioral reactions. The principles underlying classical conditioning have influenced preventative antecedent control strategies used in the classroom. Classical conditioning set the groundwork for the present day behavior modification practices, such as antecedent control. Antecedent events and conditions are defined as those conditions occurring before the behavior.

 Pavlov's early experiments used manipulation of events or stimuli preceding behavior (i.e., a tone) to produce salivation in dogs much like teachers manipulate instruction and learning environments to produce positive behaviors or decrease maladaptive behaviors. Although he did not refer to the tone as an antecedent, Pavlov was one of the first scientists to demonstrate the relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses. Pavlov systematically presented and withdrew stimuli to determine the antecedents that were eliciting responses, which is similar to the ways in which educational professionals conduct functional behavior assessments.

Antecedent strategies are supported by empirical evidence to operate implicitly within classroom environments. Antecedent-based interventions are supported by research to be preventative, and to produce immediate reductions in problem behaviors.

The concept for which Pavlov is famous is the "conditioned reflex" (or in his own words the conditional reflex) he developed jointly with his assistant Ivan Filippovitch Tolochinov in 1901. He had come to learn this concept of conditioned reflex when examining the rates of salivations 

among dogs. Pavlov had learned that when a buzzer or metronome was sounded in subsequent time with food being presented to the dog in consecutive sequences, the dog would initially salivate when the food was presented. The dog would later come to associate the sound with the presentation of the food and salivate upon the presentation of that stimulus. 

Tolochinov, whose own term for the phenomenon had been "reflex at a distance", communicated the results at the Congress of Natural Sciences in Helsinki in 1903. Later the same year Pavlov more fully explained the findings, at the 14th International Medical Congress in Madrid, where he read a paper titled The Experimental Psychology and Psychopathology of Animals.