Glossary

nirvāṇa (涅槃). By taking the Eightfold Right Path, one eradicates one’s afflictions and realizes nirvāṇa, liberating oneself from the cycle of karmic birth and death. The four nirvāṇas are (1) the inherent nirvāṇa (自性涅槃), which means true reality, the no birth and no death of all dharmas; (2) the nirvāṇa with remnant (有餘依涅槃), which means the enlightenment of an Arhat or a Pratyekabuddha who is still living; (3) the nirvāṇa without remnant (無餘依涅槃), which means the death of an Arhat or a Pratyekabuddha, who has abandoned his body, the remnant of his karmic existence; and (4) the nirvāṇa that abides nowhere (無住處涅槃), which means the supreme enlightenment of a Buddha. The great nirvāṇa of a Buddha includes the realization of the eternity, bliss, true self, and purity of the Tathāgata, and the attainment of powers unavailable to an Arhat or a Pratyekabuddha. Beyond the duality of existence and nonexistence, saṁsāra and nirvāṇa, a Buddha continues to manifest in most suitable ways in response to the needs of sentient beings, thus abiding nowhere.

no regress. See avinivartanīya.

nourishment (食). Provided by (1) ingestion of food; (2) contact with enjoyable sense objects, such as sights, sounds, scents, flavors, and tactile sensations; (3) formation of mental food, such as ideas, expectations, and recollections; and (4) ālaya consciousness that maintains one’s physiological and mental processes as well as carries karmic seeds, which will lead to future rebirths. An ordinary being in the desire realm requires these four kinds of nourishment to survive.

one appearance (eka-lakṣaṇa, 一相). All dharmas are in the one appearance of true suchness, which is beyond differentiation of appearances and beyond differentiation between appearance and no appearance. However, the one appearance is often referred to as the one appearance of no appearance.

one flavor (eka-rasa, 一味). (1) All dharmas are in the one flavor of true suchness. (2) The Buddha’s teachings of the Three Vehicles are all in the one flavor of the One Vehicle. As the one appearance of dharmas is likened to the earth, the one flavor of the Buddha’s teachings is likened to the rain nourishing all the plants on earth.

parājika (波羅夷). The Sanskrit word parāji means succumb to or overcome by. Because one succumbs to one’s afflictions, one commits a grave sin. A parājika is an extreme evil, the consequence of which is likened to having one’s head severed, never to be recovered. The four parājikas a Buddhist monk should not commit are the four root sins: killing, stealing, having sex, and lying about his spiritual attainment. Because of any of these four, he will be expelled from the Saṅgha and, after death, will fall into hell. A Buddhist nun should not commit any of the eight parājikas: the listed four for monks and four more.

parinirvāṇa (般涅槃). It means beyond nirvāṇa, the death of an Arhat or a Buddha by entering profound samādhi. Whether or not He has abandoned His body in demonstrating parinirvāṇa, a Buddha is in the nirvāṇa that abides nowhere, beyond the duality of existence and nonexistence. A Buddha’s parinirvāṇa is called mahāparinirvāṇa.

past seven Buddhas (過去七佛). The last 3 of the 1,000 Buddhas of the preceding Majestic Kalpa are Vipaśyin, Śikhin, and Visvabhū; the first 4 of the 1,000 Buddhas of the present Worthy Kalpa are Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, Kāśyapa, and Śākyamuni.

Pāṭaliputra (巴連弗 or 波吒釐子). A city in the kingdom of Magadha in central India, the present-day city of Patna. It was named after the many pāṭali trees in the city.

perfect passage (圓通). A Dharma Door, the perfect practice of meditation, through which one can pass from ignorance to significant realizations. In the Śūraṅgama Sūtra (T19n0945), at the Buddha’s command, twenty-five Arhats and holy Bodhisattvas reveal their perfect passages.

piśāca (畢舍遮). A demonic ghost that eats human flesh and sucks human vitality.

pippala (畢鉢羅). The fig (ficus religiosa) tree, a species of banyan fig, native to India. This sacred tree is renamed the bodhi tree because Śākyamuni Buddha was enlightened sitting under it.

poṣadha (布薩). Nurturing purity, a mandatory system for monastic Buddhists to convene twice each lunar month on poṣadha days (布薩日), new-moon and full-moon days, in designated places for different groups, to disclose their transgressions, repent of them, and listen to a qualified member recite the precepts. When lay Buddhists choose to accept and observe the eight precepts on one or more of the six purification days during a lunar month, it is also called poṣadha.

prātimokṣa (波羅提木叉). The Sanskrit word prati means toward or severally, and mokṣa means liberation. The term prātimokṣa is translated into Chinese as “liberation achieved severally” (別解脫). It is also referred to as prātimokṣa-saṁvara, where saṁvara means restraint (律儀), or more commonly as prātimokṣa-śīla, where śīla means precept (戒), because observance of different precepts leads to liberation severally from corresponding evils of one’s body, voice, and mind. Moreover, prātimokṣa precepts instituted by the Buddha for His seven groups of disciples in the desire realm are separate from meditation precepts (定共戒) that naturally arise in one’s mind from one’s meditation at the form-realm level, and separate from affliction-free precepts (無漏戒) that naturally arise in one’s mind from one’s realization of bodhi.

Pratyekabuddha (緣覺佛). One who is enlightened through contemplating the Twelve Links of Dependent Arising. He is also called a solitary Buddha (獨覺佛) because, living in solitude, he has realized the truth without receiving teachings from a Buddha.

preceptor (upādhyāya, 和尚). A monk qualified to teach other monks. However, the Chinese title heshang was phonetically translated from khosha, a word used in the kingdom of Yutian (于闐), or Khotan, present-day Hetian (和田), in Xinjiang, China. It has become an honorific address to an exalted monk.

pure abode heavens (淨居天). The top five of the nine heavens that constitute the fourth dhyāna heaven in the form realm (see Three Realms of Existence).

pūtana (富單那). A stinking hungry ghost that is shaped like a hog and scares children.

Rājagṛha (王舍城). The capital city of Magadha in central India, near the Vulture Peak Mountain.

rakṣasa (羅剎). A demonic ghost that eats human flesh. Rakṣasas are said to be the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka.

right mindfulness (samyak-smṛti, 正念). The seventh in the Eightfold Right Path. A few examples of right mindfulness include (1) practice of the Four Foundations of Mindfulness; (2) remembrance of the Dharma, such as the no birth of all dharmas; (3) remembrance of a Buddha; and (4) the inconceivable mindfulness of a Buddha.

roots of goodness (kuśala-mūla, 善根). These are (1) no greed, (2) no anger, and (3) no delusion. The five roots in Thirty-seven Elements of Bodhi are goodness in themselves and can grow other good dharmas (also see Four Preparatory Trainings).

ṛṣi (仙人). An ascetic hermit considered to be an immortal or a godlike human. Śākyamuni Buddha is also revered as the Great Ṛṣi. In the Śūraṅgama Sūtra (T19n0945), the Buddha describes ten kinds of ṛṣis, who live thousands or tens of thousands of years, with the five transcendental powers, such as walking on land, traveling across sky, changing themselves into any form, etc.

Sahā World (sahā-lokadhātu, 莎婆世界). The endurance world. It is the Three Realms of Existence, where sentient beings are able to endure their suffering and may even find their lives enjoyable.

śakrābhi-lagna-ratna (釋迦毘楞伽寶). The precious jewel worn on the neck of the god-king Śakra, which illuminates all of the Thirty-three Heavens (Trayastriṁśa Heaven) constituting the second desire heaven under his rule. It is likened to the wisdom of Bodhisattvas, which can manifest myriad things.

Śakro-Devānām-Indra (釋提桓因). The title of the god-king of Trayastriṁśa Heaven, often abbreviated as Śakra or Indra. The Buddha calls the incumbent Śakra by his family name, Kauśika.

samādhi (定). A state of mental absorption in meditation. Above the level of the desire realm, there are eight levels of worldly samādhi (八定). The first four levels are the four dhyānas (四禪) of the form realm. The next four levels are the four samādhis of the formless realm (四空定): Boundless Space (空無邊), Boundless Consciousness (識無邊), Nothingness (無所有), and Neither with Nor without Perception (非有想非無想). A Buddhist or non-Buddhist who has attained any of the eight levels of meditation can be reborn in a corresponding heaven in the form or formless realm. Only an Arhat can attain the ninth level called the Samādhi of Total Halt (滅盡定), also more appropriately called the Samādhi of Total Suspension of Sensory Reception and Perception (滅受想定). To enter the Samādhi Door of Buddhas is to attain innumerable samādhis.

śamatha (奢摩他). It means stillness, a mental state in which one’s mind is in single-minded concentration (see vipaśyanā).

saṁsāra (輪迴), or jāti-maraṇa (生死). The cycle of karmic birth and death, in which every sentient being transmigrates through the six life-journeys in the Three Realms of Existence. This endless cycle is called the hard-to-cross ocean, also called the ocean of suffering (see two types of birth and death).

saṁskṛta (有為). Formed or made through causes and conditions. Each saṁskṛta dharma is a process with the four appearances. Sentient beings and all the things they perceive or conceive are saṁskṛta dharmas (see asaṁskṛta).

Saṅgha (僧伽). A community comprising a Buddha’s four groups of disciples (四眾): monks (bhikṣu), nuns (bhikṣuṇī), laymen (upāsaka), and laywomen (upāsikā).

śārī (舍利). A mynah bird. Śārikā was the name of Śāriputra’s mother because her eyes were bright and clever like those of a mynah.

sarvajña. See three wisdom-knowledges.

self-essence (svabhāva, 自性). An inherent state of being, self-made, self-determined, and changeless. This is a false reality that sentient beings attach to their perceptions. In truth, nothing has self-essence because everything is constantly changing through causes and conditions. That all dharmas are without self-essence is the true reality defined as emptiness.

Seven Bodhi Factors (七覺分). These are (1) critical examination of theories, (2) energetic progress, (3) joyful mentality, (4) lightness and peacefulness in body and mind, (5) mindfulness in all activities and remembrance of the true Dharma, (6) samādhi, and (7) equability under favorable or unfavorable circumstances.

seven groups of disciples (七眾). The five monastic groups are bhikṣus (monks), bhikṣuṇīs (nuns), śrāmaṇeras (novice monks), śrāmaṇerikās (novice nuns), śikṣamāṇās (novice nuns in their last two years before ordination). The two lay groups are upāsakas (laymen) and upāsikās (laywomen).

seven noble treasures (七聖財). These are (1) faith, (2) wisdom, (3) observing the precepts, (4) hearing teachings, (5) having a sense of shame, (6) having a sense of dishonor, and (7) discarding afflictions.

seven rebellious acts or sins (七逆). Added to the five rebellious acts are (6) killing one’s preceptor, and (7) killing one’s ācārya.

seven treasures (七寶). These are (1) suvarṇa (金, gold); (2) rūpya (銀, silver); (3) vaiḍūrya (琉璃, aquamarine); (4) sphaṭika (頗梨, crystal); (5) musāragalva (硨磲, conch shell or white coral); (6) lohita-muktikā (赤珠, ruby); and (7) aśmagarbha (瑪瑙, emerald). Sometimes coral and amber are included in place of crystal and ruby. F. Max Müller cites a reference in Buddhist Mahāyāna Texts (Cowell et al. [1894] 1969, part 2, 92), in which vaiḍūrya is matched with lapis lazuli, and aśmagarbha with diamond. While lapis lazuli is an opaque intense blue stone, indications in the sūtras are that vaiḍūrya should be a transparent blue beryl, such as aquamarine. According to the Monier-Williams Online Dictionary, aśmagarbha is emerald; vajra (伐折羅) is diamond, an adamantine mineral (金剛).

siddhi (悉地). Achievement through spiritual training using one’s body, voice, and mind. The ultimate siddhi is Buddhahood.

six branches of family (六親). They include father, mother, wife, sons, elder brothers, and younger brothers. Sisters and daughters are not mentioned because they will be included in their husbands’ families as wives and mothers.

six causes (ṣad-hetu, 六因). A saṁskṛta dharma may be one of the six causes: (1) a working cause 能作因, e.g., empty space can accommodate objects and the earth can support life; (2) a concurrent cause 倶有因, e.g., three sticks together support something; (3) a corresponding-effect cause 同類因, e.g., a good thought leads to a corresponding good action; (4) an interactive cause 相應因, e.g., mental functions interact with one another; (5) an all-affecting cause 遍行因, e.g., a wrong view affects all one’s actions; (6) a ripening cause 異熟因, or requital cause, e.g., the karma of killing a sentient being brings the killer a requital, his rebirth in hell, like a ripened fruit.

six desire heavens (六欲天). (1) Heaven of the Four God-Kings (Cātur-mahārāja-kāyika-deva, (四天王天); (2) Trayastriṁśa Heaven (忉利天), or Thirty-three Heavens (三十三天), ruled by Śakra-Devānām-Indra; (3) Yāma Heaven (夜摩天) ruled by Suyāma-devarāja; (4) Tuṣita Heaven (兜率天) ruled by Saṁtuṣita-devarāja; (5) Nirmāṇa-rati Heaven (化自在天) ruled by Sunirmita-devarāja; (6) Paranirmita-vaśa-vartin Heaven (他化自在天) ruled by Vaśavartti-devarāja. The first two heavens are earth-abode heavens; and all other heavens are sky-abode heavens.

six domains (ṣad-dhātu, 六界, 六大). A sentient being is made of the six domains—earth, water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness—and appears to have these features: solid substance, fluid, heat, motion, space within the body, and consciousness. A non-sentient thing (plant or nonliving thing) is made of the first five domains (see four domains).

six elements of harmony and respect (六和敬). Members of a Saṅgha need to have accord among their body, voice, mind, precepts, almsgiving, and views, in order to have harmony with and respect for one another.

six faculties (ṣaḍ-indriya, 六根, 六入). These are eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mental faculty (manas). The first five are sense organs, which function as sensory entrances (see twelve fields).

six pāramitās (六度, 六波羅蜜). Pāramitā means crossed from this shore of saṁsāra to the opposite shore of nirvāṇa. To succeed in the crossing, a Bodhisattva needs to achieve the six pāramitās: (1) dāna (almsgiving), (2) śīla (morality), (3) kṣānti (endurance), (4) vīrya (energetic progress), (5) dhyāna (meditation), and (6) prajñā (wisdom). See ten pāramitās.

six periods (六時). The day is divided into morning (6–10 a.m.), midday (10 a.m.–2 p.m.), and afternoon (2–6 p.m.); the night into evening (6–10 p.m.), midnight (10 p.m.–2 a.m.), and post-midnight (2–6 a.m.). Each period has four hours.

six purification days (六齋日). On the 8th, 14th, 15th, 23rd, 29th, and 30th day of each lunar month, lay Buddhists can accept and observe the eight precepts, abstaining from committing sins that are evil by nature and from sensory gratification. The Sanskrit word word poṣadha (齋) means fasting for purification. However, not knowing the meaning of poṣadha, some lay Buddhists assign these six days for eating vegetarian meals.

six remembrances (六念). Remembrances of (1) the Buddha, (2) the Dharma, (3) the Saṅgha, (4) the precepts, (5) almsgiving, and (6) heaven: ordinary beings should remember that rebirth in a heaven is acquired by purifying one’s mind, observing one’s precepts, and almsgiving, and that they can strive to qualify. Riders of the Mahāyāna should remember the heaven of the highest meaning (第一義天), the ultimate nirvāṇa.

six transcendental powers (六通). Only an Arhat has the six transcendental powers. With no more afflictions to discharge, he has liberated himself from his cycle of birth and death. Hence, eradication of afflictions, which ends their discharges (漏盡通), is called the sixth transcendental power of an Arhat, which is unavailable to those who have not attained Arhatship. It also makes his achievement in the first five transcendental powers superior to that of those others.

sixty-two views (六十二見). The wrong views held by ancient Indian philosophers. One set of 62 views argues about each of the five aggregates of a sentient being: in the past it is permanent, impermanent, both, or neither; in the present it is with boundary, without boundary, both, or neither; in the future it is going, not going, both, or neither. To these 60 views, two polar opposites, perpetuity and cessation of existence, are added to make a total of 62. Another set of 62 views includes 56 views of self and 6 views of existence. They hold that each of the five aggregates of a sentient being in the desire realm and the form realm and each of the four aggregates of a god in the formless realm is self, not self, both, or neither, totaling 56 views. In addition, perpetuity and cessation of existence in the Three Realms comes to 6 views.

śramaṇa (沙門). An ascetic or a monk, one who has renounced family life and lives a life of purity, poverty, and diligent training, seeking the truth.

śrāmaṇera (沙彌). A novice Buddhist monk, usually seven to twenty years old.

Śrāvastī (舍衛國). The capital city of the ancient kingdom of Kauśala.

stages of the Bodhisattva Way (菩薩階位). The spiritual levels of a Bodhisattva on the Way to Buddhahood. According to the 80-fascicle version of the Mahāvaipulya Sūtra of Buddha Adornment (T10n0279), a Bodhisattva advances through fifty-two levels, which are grouped into seven stages: (1) ten faithful minds, (2) ten levels of abiding, (3) ten faithful minds, (4) ten levels of transference of merit, (5) Ten Grounds, (6) virtually perfect enlightenment, and (7) perfect enlightenment. A Bodhisattva will continue to be an ordinary being as he cultivates the ten faithful minds; he will be a sage as he practices the ten pāramitās, progressing through the ten levels of abiding, ten levels of action, and ten levels of transference of merit; and he will be a holy being as he progresses through the Ten Grounds. A Bodhisattva will ascend to the First Ground when he realizes that all dharmas have no birth. As he progresses from the First Ground to the Tenth Ground, he will achieve the ten pāramitās one after another, in one-to-one correspondence with the Ten Grounds. At the fifty-first level, his enlightenment being virtually perfect, he will be in the holy position of waiting to become a Buddha in his next life. At the fifty-second level, he attains the perfect enlightenment, achieving the ultimate fruit of the aspiration and training of a Bodhisattva.

store (藏). A paraphrase of the Sanskrit word garbha, which means the womb or the child in the womb. Then the thus-come store (tathāgata-garbha) is one’s true mind, which is also called the vajra (indestructible) store. One’s true mind is likened to the space store in its vastness, and to the earth store in its supportiveness and hidden treasures. The realm of all dharmas is the dharma store. The aggregate of all Dharmas (Buddhas’ teachings) is the Dharma store; the collection of all precepts is the precept store.

stūpa (窣堵婆). A memorial pagoda for the remains of a holy being, whether relics of bones or scriptures.

suffering (duḥkha, 苦). The first of the Four Noble Truths.
     A. The eight kinds of suffering are (1) birth, (2) old age, (3) illness, (4) death, (5) inability to get what one wants, (6) loss of what one loves, (7) encounter with what one hates, and (8) the driving force of the five aggregates. Driven by the five aggregates, one experiences impermanence, pain, and sorrow in the preceding seven situations.
     B. The three kinds of suffering are (1) pain brought by a cause (苦苦), (2) deterioration of pleasure (壞苦), and (3) continuous change in all processes (行苦).

sūtras in the twelve categories (十二部經). The teachings of the Buddha are classified by content and form into the twelve categories: (1) sūtra, discourses in prose; (2) geya, songs that repeat the teachings; (3) vyākaraṇa, prophecies; (4) gāthā, stanzas; (5) udāna, self-initiated utterances; (6) nidāna, causes for the discourses; (7) avadāna, parables; (8) itivṛttaka, sūtras that begin with “so it has been said”; (9) jātaka, past lives of the Buddha; (10) vaipulya, extensive teachings; (11) adbhuta-dharma, marvelous events; and (12) upadeśa, pointing-out instructions.

svastika (萬). The auspicious symbol on the chest of a Buddha, one of His thirty-two major marks. This symbol (卍) initially describes His hair turning to the right, like an ocean of clouds, bringing joy to viewers. The flip side (卐) of this symbol is also used in different editions of the Chinese Buddhist Canon. However, it was adopted by Nazi Germany in the twentieth century and became stigmatized.

Tathāgata (如來). The Thus-Come One, the first of the ten epithets of a Buddha, which signifies true suchness. Although the Tathāgata never moves, a Buddha appears to have come and gone in the same way as have past Buddhas.

ten appearances (十相). As stated in the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra (T12n0375), the appearances of a sentient being are (1) sights, (2) sounds, (3) scents, (4) flavors, (5) tactile sensations, (6) birth, (7) staying, (8) death, (9) male, and (10) female (see four appearances).

ten directions (十方). The spatial directions of east, southeast, south, southwest, west, northwest, north, northeast, the nadir, and the zenith.

ten evil karmas (十惡). These are (1) killing, (2) stealing, (3) sexual misconduct, (4) false speech, (5) divisive speech, (6) abusive speech, (7) suggestive speech, (8) greed, (9) anger, and (10) the wrong views.

ten good karmas (十善). The opposites of the ten evil karmas are (1) no killing, (2) no stealing, (3) no sexual misconduct, (4) no false speech, (5) no divisive speech, (6) no abusive speech, (7) no suggestive speech, (8) no greed, (9) no anger, and (10) no wrong views.

ten fetters (十纏). These are (1) no sense of shame, (2) no sense of dishonor, (3) jealousy, (4) stinginess, (5) remorse, (6) torpor, (7) restlessness, (8) stupor, (9) rage, and (10) concealing one’s wrongdoings.

ten pāramitās (十度, 十波羅蜜). In parallel with the Ten Grounds for Bodhisattva development (see stages of the Bodhisattva Way), added to the list of six pāramitās are four more pāramitās: (7) upāya (skillful means), (8) praṇidhāna (earnest wish), (9) bala (power), and (10) jñāna (wisdom-knowledge).

Ten Powers (daśa-bala, 十力). Only a Buddha has perfect knowledge of (1) the right or wrong in every situation and its corresponding karmic consequences; (2) the karmic requitals of every sentient being in the past, present, and future; (3) all stages of dhyāna and samādhi; (4) the capacity and future attainment of every sentient being; (5) the desires and inclinations of every sentient being; (6) the nature and condition of every sentient being; (7) the consequences of all actions with or without afflictions; (8) all past lives of every sentient being and their karmic reasons; (9) all future rebirths of every sentient being and their karmic reasons; and (10) the permanent termination of all afflictions and habits upon attainment of Buddhahood.

ten precepts (daśa-śīla, 十戒). Observed by novice monks and nuns, the ten precepts include the eight precepts, but precepts 7 and 8 are renumbered 8 and 9, because precept 6 is divided into two: (6) no wearing perfumes or adornments, and (7) no singing, dancing, or watching song-dance entertainments. A tenth precept is added: (10) no touching or hoarding money or treasures.

Thirty-seven Elements of Bodhi (三十七道品). Trainings for attaining bodhi include
     A. Four Foundations of Mindfulness;
     B. Four Right Endeavors [(1) end forever the existing evil, (2) do not allow new evil to arise, (3) cause new goodness to arise, and (4) expand existing goodness];
     C. Four Works to Attain Samādhi [(1) aspiration, (2) energetic progress, (3) focus, and (4) contemplation];
     D. Five Roots [(1) faith, (2) energetic progress, (3) remembrance of the true Dharma, (4) samādhi, and (5) wisdom];
     E. Five Powers [(1) power in faith, (2) power in energetic progress, (3) power in remembrance of the true Dharma, (4) power in samādhi, and (5) power in wisdom];
     F. Seven Bodhi Factors;
     G. Eightfold Right Path.

three ages of the Dharma (正像末期). The Dharma of Śākyamuni Buddha will end after the three ages: (1) The true Dharma age (正法) lasted 500 to 1,000 years after His passing. During this age, there were teachings, carrying out of the teachings, and attaining of fruits. (2) The Dharma-likeness age (像法) lasted 500 to 1,000 years. During this age, there were teachings and carrying out of the teachings, but no attaining of fruits. (3) The Dharma-ending age (末法) will last 10,000 years. During this age, the teachings will gradually vanish, and there will be neither carrying out of the teachings nor attaining of fruits. Because people will no longer be receptive, the Dharma will be gone for a long time until the advent of the next Buddha. In the Bodhisattva in the Womb Sūtra (T12n384, 1025c15–19), fascicle 2, the Buddha prophesies that, after 56 koṭi and 70 million years, which (if a koṭi is 10 million) means 630 million years, Maitreya Bodhisattva will descend from Tuṣita Heaven and become the next Buddha, bringing the Dharma to a renewed world.

three bodies of a Buddha (三身). These are (1) dharmakāya (the dharma body or truth body), which is emptiness, the true reality of all dharmas; (2) saṁbhogakāya (the reward body or enjoyment body) in a sublime ethereal form, which represents the immeasurable merit of a Buddha; and (3) nirmāṇakāya (a response body through birth or a miraculously manifested body), which is the manifestation of a Buddha in response to sentient beings that are ready to accept the Dharma. The reward body and the response body are the appearances of the dharma body, and these three bodies are inseparable. According to the Tiantai School of China, of the latest Buddha, Vairocana is the dharmakāya, Rocana is the saṁbhogakāya, and Śākyamuni is the nirmāṇakāya.

three Buddha natures (三佛性). These are (1) Buddha nature inherent in all sentient beings but unknown to them, (2) Buddha nature gradually revealed through one’s spiritual training, and (3) Buddha nature evident in a Buddha.

Three Clarities (三明). An Arhat has attained (1) clarity of the past lives of self and others and their causes and conditions; (2) clarity of the god-eye, which sees the future lives of self and others and their causes and conditions; and (3) clear knowledge that one’s afflictions have ceased and will never arise again. The Three Clarities of a Buddha are supreme and are called the Three Thorough Clarities (三達).

three dharmas (三法). Teachings, practices, and realization of holy fruit.

Three Endurances in the Dharma (三法忍). According to the Sūtra of Amitāyus Buddha (T12n0360), these are (1) Endurance in Hearing the Sounds (音響忍), which means acceptance of the Dharma through hearing it; (2) Endurance in Accord (柔順忍), which means agreement with the Dharma through pondering in accord with the truth; and (3) Endurance in the Realization of the No Birth of Dharmas (無生法忍), which is the lasting realization of the truth that dharmas have neither birth nor death.

three fortune fields (三福田). These are (1) the reverence field (敬田), which means the Three Jewels; (2) the kindness field (恩田), which means one’s parents and teachers; and (3) the compassion field (悲田), which means the poor, the sick, and animals. By making offerings to any of these three fortune fields, one plants seeds which will yield harvests of fortune in one’s and future lives.

three groups (三聚). Sentient beings are divided into three groups: (1) the group that definitely progresses on the right path to bodhi (正定聚); (2) the group that definitely is not on the bodhi path (邪定聚); (3) the group that is indecisive about its paths (不定聚).

Three Jewels (三寶). These are (1) the Buddha, the unsurpassed perfectly enlightened teacher; (2) the Dharma, His teachings; and (3) the Saṅgha, the Buddhist community.

three kinds of hindrances (三障). Hindrances to realization of one’s true mind are (1) afflictions, such as greed, anger, and delusion, which agitate one’s mind and lead to negative karmas; (2) karmas, done with one’s body, voice, and mind, which lead to requitals; and (3) requitals, such as an unfortunate rebirth in human form with incomplete faculties, or in the form of animal, hungry ghost, or hell dweller.

Three Liberation Doors (trīṇi vimokṣa-mokha, 三解脫門), or Three Samādhis. These are (1) emptiness, (2) no appearance, and (3) no wish or no act. Through samādhi, one realizes emptiness, penetrating the no birth of all dharmas. One also realizes that the illusory appearances of dharmas conceived or perceived are no appearance. One makes no wish and does nothing for future rebirths in the Three Realms of Existence.

Three Realms of Existence (trayo-dhātu, 三界, 三有). The world of illusory existence, in which sentient beings transmigrate, comprises (1) the desire realm (欲界), where reside sentient beings with the full range of afflictions, such as hell dwellers, ghosts, animals, humans, asuras, and some gods; (2) the form realm (色界), where Brahma gods, who have only pure desires, reside in eighteen form heavens classified into the four dhyāna heavens (四禪天), or four levels of meditation; and (3) the formless realm (無色界), where formless gods are in mental existence in four formless heavens, or at four levels of long, deep meditative absorption (see samādhi).

Three Refuges (三皈依). One becomes a Buddhist by taking refuge, for protection and guidance, in the Three Jewels: the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Saṅgha. In the Sūtra of the Upāsaka Precepts (T24n1488), the Buddha teaches the Four Refuges, and the fourth one is the Precepts.

Three Samādhis (三三昧). See Three Liberation Doors.

three turnings of the Dharma wheel in the twelve appearances (三轉法輪十二行相). The Buddha turned three times the Dharma wheel of the Four Noble Truths. During the first turning for indication, the Buddha revealed, “This is suffering; this is accumulation of afflictions; this is cessation of suffering; this is the path.” During the second turning for persuasion, He advised, “This is the suffering you should know; this is the accumulation of afflictions you should destroy; this is the cessation of suffering you should achieve; this is the path you should take.” During the third turning for confirmation, He testified, “This is the suffering I have known; this is the accumulation of afflictions I have destroyed; this is the cessation of suffering I have achieved; this is the path I have completed.”

Three Vehicles (三乘). The Great Vehicle (Mahāyāna) and the Two Vehicles.

three white foods (三白食). Milk, cream or curd, and white rice.

three wisdom-knowledges (三智). These are (1) the overall wisdom-knowledge (sarvajña, 一切智), which is the emptiness of everything, realized by an Arhat, a Pratyekabudda, and a holy Bodhisattva; (2) discriminatory wisdom-knowledge (道種智), which is developed in a holy Bodhisattva, who differentiates all displays of illusory existence in order to deliver sentient beings; and (3) knowledge of all knowledge (sarvajña-jñāna, 一切種智), or omniscience (sarvajñatā), which is a Buddha’s perfect wisdom-knowledge of all beings and all things in their general and particular aspects, and of the non-duality of emptiness and myriad displays.

Three-Thousand Large Thousandfold World (三千大千世界). A galaxy, the educational district of a Buddha. It consists of a billion small worlds, each including a Mount Sumeru surrounded by four continents and interlaying circles of eight oceans and eight mountain ranges. One thousand such small worlds constitute a Small Thousandfold World. One thousand Small Thousandfold Worlds constitute a Medium Thousandfold World. Finally, one thousand Medium Thousandfold Worlds constitute a Large Thousandfold World. Therefore, Three-Thousand does not mean 3,000, but 1,000 raised to the power of 3, as described above. It can also mean that there are three kinds of Thousandfold World: small, medium, and large.

total retention (總持). See dhāraṇī.

Trayastriṁśa Heaven (忉利天). The second of the six desire heavens. It is on the top of Mount Sumeru, and the first desire heaven is halfway up Mount Sumeru, while all other heavens are up in the sky. Trayastriṁśa Heaven means Thirty-three Heavens, all ruled by the god-king Śakro-Devānām-Indra, commonly called Śakra or Indra.

Tripiṭaka (三藏). The three collections of texts of the Buddhist canon: (1) the Sūtra-piṭaka, discourses of the Buddha; (2) the Vinaya-piṭaka, rules of conduct; and (3) the Abhidharma-piṭaka, treatises on the Dharma. A Tripiṭaka master is accomplished in all three areas.

true suchness (bhūta-tathatā, 真如). The changeless true reality of all dharmas, the absolute truth that they have neither birth nor death. It has other names, including emptiness, true emptiness, ultimate emptiness, one appearance, one flavor, true reality, ultimate reality (bhūta-koṭi), primal state, Buddha mind, true mind, inherent pure mind, the Thus-Come One (Tathāgata), the thus-come store (Tathāgata-garbha), vajra store, dharma-kāya, Buddha nature, dharma nature, dharma realm, the one true dharma realm, the highest truth (paramārtha), the great seal, and the great perfection. One’s body and mental states, and objects perceived as external, are all manifestations of one’s true mind, projected through causes and conditions from the pure, impure, and neutral seeds stored in ālaya consciousness.

twelve fields (dvādaśa-āyatana, 十二處, 十二入). A sentient being is composed of the twelve fields: the six faculties (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mental faculty [manas]) and their six objects (sights, sounds, scents, flavors, tactile sensations, and mental objects). The six faculties are also called the six internal fields, and their objects are called the six external fields. The Consciousness-only School calls the latter “projected appearances” (影像相分). And modern neurologists recognize that percepts are “brain representations” (see eighteen spheres).

Twelve Links of Dependent Arising (十二因緣法). The principle that explains why and how a sentient being continues to be reborn according to karma. Each link is the main condition for the next one to arise. These twelve links are (1) ignorance, (2) karmic actions, (3) consciousness, (4) name and form, (5) six faculties, (6) contact with sense objects, (7) sensory reception, (8) love, (9) grasping, (10) karmic force for being, (11) birth, and (12) old age and death. Links 1–2 refer to the afflictions and karmic seeds from previous lives, links 3–7 refer to the karmic fruit in the present life, links 8–10 refer to karmas in the present life, and links 11–12 refer to the karmic fruit in the next life. In this sequence, the twelve links connect one’s lives from the past to the present, continuing to the future. With ignorance, one goes from affliction to karma to suffering, continuing the endless spiral of birth and death. By ending ignorance one will disengage the remaining eleven links and end one’s cycle of birth and death.

twenty-five forms of existence (二十五有). There are fourteen in the desire realm (欲界), seven in the form realm (色界), and four in the formless realm (無色界).

two classes of sin (二罪). (1) Sin by nature (性罪) comes from doing evil, such as any of the four evil acts: killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, and lying, whether or not it is prohibited by the Buddha. Doing any such evil is a grave sin (parājika). (2) Sin by decree (制罪) comes from an act decreed by the Buddha as a sin, e.g., drinking alcohol, which may not be an evil in itself but can lead to grave sins or public criticism or resentment. Performing such an act is a wrongdoing (duṣkṛta), a minor sin.

two emptinesses (二空). (1) The emptiness of a sentient being (人空) composed of dharmas, such as the five aggregates, and dependent on causes and conditions; (2) the emptiness of a dharma (法空) dependent on causes and conditions (see eighteen emptinesses).

two kinds of hindrances (二障).
     A. (1) Affliction hindrances (煩惱障), which lead to another two kinds of hindrances, evil karmas and corresponding requitals (see three kinds of hindrances); (2) hindrances to wisdom-knowledge (jñeya, 智障), which are one’s ground-abiding ignorance (住地無明), the deep-rooted ignorance (根本無明).
     B. (1) Affliction hindrances as in A (1); (2) hindrances to liberation, which prevent one from attaining the Samādhi of Total Suspension of Sensory Reception and Perception.

Two Paths (二道).
     A. (1) The Path with Discharges (有漏道) is the worldly path taken by those with afflictions as they follow the first two of the Four Noble Truths and transmigrate in the Three Realms of Existence; (2) the Path without Discharges (無漏道) is the holy path taken by those who follow the last two of the Four Noble Truths, in order to eradicate their afflictions and transcend the Three Realms (see discharge).
     B. (1) The Difficult Path (難行道) to Buddhahood is through repeated birth and death in the Three Realms of Existence; (2) the Easy Path (易行道) to Buddhahood is through rebirth in a Pure Buddha Land to train there.

two types of birth and death (二種生死). (1) An ordinary being, whose lifespan and life form are governed by the law of karma, repeatedly undergoes karmic birth and death (分段生死). (2) A holy Bodhisattva on any of the Ten Grounds, whose lifespan and mind-created body (意生身) are changeable at will, undergoes changeable birth and death (變易生死). Only a Buddha has ended both types of birth and death.

Two Vehicles (二乘). The Voice-Hearer Vehicle that leads to Arhatship and the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle that leads to Pratyekabuddhahood, for one’s own liberation only. The Mahāyāna doctrine refers to the Theravāda School in Southeast Asia (Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia) as the Small Vehicle (Hīnayāna), which can be either or both of these Two Vehicles.

Two-Footed Honored One (dvipadottama, 兩足尊). A Buddha is the most honored one among sentient beings standing on two feet, i.e., gods and humans. Moreover, the two feet of a Buddha are compared to meditation and moral conduct, merit and wisdom, knowledge in the relative and absolute truth, knowledge and action, or vow and action. A Buddha has perfected both.

unimpeded eloquence (無礙辯). This includes (1) unimpeded understanding of dharmas, (2) unimpeded interpretation of their meanings, (3) unimpeded forms of expression_r, and (4) unimpeded delight in articulation according to the capacity of the listeners.

upadeśa (優波提舍). A pointing-out instruction, usually interpreted as a treatise (see sūtras in the twelve categories).

upaniṣad (優波尼薩曇). Sitting down at the feet of another to listen to his words. It suggests secret knowledge given in this manner. It may be an esoteric unit of measure.

upāsaka (優婆塞). A Buddhist layman (see Saṅgha).

upāsikā (優婆夷). A Buddhist laywoman. (see Saṅgha).

Vairocana (毘盧遮那). The name of the dharmakāya or saṁbhogakāya of a Buddha (see three bodies of a Buddha). Vairocana means pervasive radiance, and signifies the universal equality of everything in true suchness as well as the all-encompassing wisdom of a Buddha. According to the Mahāvaipulya Sūtra of Buddha Adornment (T09n278) in 60 fascicles, Vairocana is the name for a Buddha’s dharmakāya. According to the Brahma Net Sūtra (T24n1484), Vairocana is the name for a Buddha’s saṁbhogakāya. Śākyamuni Buddha, in his nirmāṇakāya, is sometimes referred to as Vairocana Buddha or Rocana Buddha.

Vaiśālī (毘舍離). The domicile of the Licchavi clan, one of the sixteen great city kingdoms of ancient India. One hundred years after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa, in this city, 700 sages gathered in the second assembly for the compilation and revision of the Buddhist Canon.

vajra (伐折羅, 金剛). (1) Adamantine and indestructible, a description of the true suchness of all dharmas. (2) Diamond, considered to be as hard as the thunderbolt. (3) A ritual object, as a symbol of skillful means to deliver oneself and others from the cycle of birth and death.

Vārāṇasī (波羅奈國). An ancient city state on the Ganges, the present-day city of Benares. Nearby is Deer Park, where the Buddha gave His first teachings to five monks.

Veda (吠陀). Sacred knowledge, the general name of the Hindu canonical sacred texts. The four Vedas are the Ṛg-veda, Sāma-veda, Yajur-veda, and Athara-veda. They include mantras, prayers, hymns, and rituals. The Ṛg-veda is the only original work of the first three Vedas. Its texts are assigned to a period between 1400 and 1000 BCE. The fourth Veda, Athara-veda, emerged later.

vessel world (器世間). The living environment of a sentient being, e.g., a birdcage holding a bird. For this sentient being, assuming the life form of a bird is the main requital (正報), and living in a birdcage, its vessel world, is the reliance requital (依報). Though the main requital does not change during the life of a sentient being, its reliance requital may change, e.g., the bird may be released from its cage.

view of void (空見). The wrong view that the emptiness of dharmas means nothingness and that therefore causality can be ignored.

vipaśyanā (毗婆舍那). Correct observation or clear seeing, which leads to insight. Śamatha-vipaśyanā has been translated as stillness and observation (止觀), or as silent illumination (默照). When śamatha and vipaśyanā are balanced in power, one may realize the non-dual state of one’s mind.

voice-hearer (śrāvaka, 聲聞). One who has received oral teachings from a Buddha. The four groups of disciples of Śākyamuni Buddha were all voice-hearers. In the Lotus Sūtra (T09n0262), the Buddha bestows upon 1,200 Arhats and 2,000 voice-hearers the prophecy of attaining Buddhahood. Listed below are a few disciples of the Buddha:

Ājñātakauṇḍinya (阿若憍陳如) was one of the first five disciples of the Buddha. He is well regarded as an Elder.

Ānanda (阿難) was the younger brother of Devadatta. As the Buddha’s attendant, he is noted for hearing and remembering all the teachings of the Buddha. Ānanda became an Arhat after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. In the first assembly of Arhats, he recited from memory all the teachings for the compilation of the sūtras. Succeeding Mahākāśyapa, he is reckoned as the second patriarch of the Buddhist lineage.

Aniruddha (阿那律) became a disciple soon after the Buddha’s enlightenment. He used to fall asleep when the Buddha was teaching and was reproved by the Buddha. Ashamed, he practiced day and night without sleep and lost his eyesight. However, he was able to see with his god-eye.

Cullapatka (周梨槃陀迦), also called Śuddhipanthaka, and his twin brother, Patka (Panthaka), were born on a roadside while their parents were traveling. He was forgetful of the Buddha’s teachings. Then the Buddha told him to remember the short phrase “remove the dust and defilements” as he did cleaning work in his daily life. He then attained Arhatship and transcendental powers.

Devadatta (提婆達多) was a cousin of the Buddha, with whom he had competed since childhood. He became a disciple after the Buddha had attained perfect enlightenment. He trained hard for twelve years but did not attain Arhatship. Disgusted, he studied magic and formed his own group. Devadatta beat a nun to death, and made several attempts to murder the Buddha and destroy the Saṅgha. He fell into hell after his death. However, in a previous life he had given the Buddha Mahāyāna teachings. Despite the wicked deeds in his life, the Buddha prophesies in the Lotus Sūtra (T09n0262) that Devadatta will become a Buddha called Devarāja.

Gavāṁpati (憍梵波提) had been a cow for 500 lives because of his past karma. As a disciple of the Buddha, he still ruminated like a cow, and he was mocked by people as the cow-faced bhikṣu. Out of compassion, the Buddha sent him to a garden in Trayastriṁśa Heaven to train in meditation. He returned to Earth after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa, and he too entered parinirvāṇa soon afterward.

Kālodāyin (迦留陀夷) was a disciple whose skin was very black. He used to beg for food at night. A pregnant woman miscarried when she saw him in a flash of lightning in the dark of the night. Then the Buddha stipulated that no one should beg for food after noontime.

Kapphiṇa (劫賓那) was born under the constellation Scorpio. He is said to have understood astronomy, been the king of Southern Kośala, and then become a disciple of the Buddha, receiving his monastic name Mahākapphiṇa. In the Lotus Sūtra (T09n0262), the Buddha prophesies that Kapphiṇa will become a Buddha called Samanta-prabhāsa.

Kāśyapa brothers (三迦葉) were Uruvilvākāśyapa (優樓頻螺迦葉), Nadīkāśyapa (那提迦葉), and Gayākāśyapa (伽耶迦葉). Initially fire-worshippers, they joined the Buddha’s Order together with their 1,000 followers.

Mahāculla (摩訶周那), also called Patka, Panthaka, or Mahāpanthaka, was the elder twin brother of Cullapatka. More intelligent than his twin, he soon attained Arhatship after joining the Buddha’s Order.

Mahākāśyapa (摩訶迦葉) was initially a Brahmin in Magadha, and he became a disciple, three years after the Buddha had attained enlightenment. In eight days, Mahākāśyapa attained Arhatship. He is considered the foremost in ascetic practices. When the Buddha held up a flower, only Mahākāśyapa in the huge assembly understood the meaning and responded with a smile. Then the Buddha entrusted him with the continuation of the lineage, and he became the first patriarch after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. After entrusting the lineage to Ānanda, Mahākāśyapa went to the Vulture Peak (Gṛdhrakūṭa) Mountain. There he has remained in samādhi. He will enter parinirvāṇa after the advent the next Buddha, Maitreya.

Mahākātyāyana (摩訶迦旃延) was born into the Brahmin caste in the kingdom of Avanti in western India. He studied the Vedas under his uncle Asita, a ṛṣi, who foresaw that Prince Siddhārtha would attain Buddhahood. Mahākātyāyana then followed the Buddha in honor of Asita’s death wish. Through diligent training under the Buddha, Mahākātyāyana attained Arhatship. After the parinirvāṇa of the Buddha, he often debated with non-Buddhists, and is known as the foremost in polemic.

Mahākauṣṭhila (摩訶拘絺羅) joined the Buddha’s Order after his nephew Śāriputra did. He soon attained Arhatship and acquired unimpeded eloquence. The Buddha praised him as the foremost in eloquence.

Mahāmaudgalyāyana (大目揵連), together with his own disciples, following his good friend Śāriputra, became a disciple of the Buddha and attained Arhatship in a month. Śāriputra is represented as standing on the Buddha’s right and Maudgalyāyana on His left. Maudgalyāyana was stoned to death by Brahmins shortly before the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. He is considered the foremost in transcendental powers.

Nanda (難陀). (1) Nanda was the half brother of the Buddha. He was also called Sundara-Nanda (孫陀羅難陀), with his wife’s name Sundarī added to differentiate him from Nanda the Cattle Herder. He was tall and handsome, with thirty marks of a great man. After becoming a monk under the Buddha, he was still attached to his wife. Through the Buddha’s skillful teachings, he ended his love and desire and attained Arhatship. (2) Nanda was the Cattle Herder who offered milk every day to the Buddha and His disciples during their three-month summer retreat. Assuming that the Buddha knew nothing about cattle herding, he asked Him questions. After the Buddha told him eleven things about cattle herding, Nanda was deeply moved and joined the Buddha’s Order.

Patka (半託迦), also called Panthaka or Mahāpanthaka, was the elder twin brother of Cullapatka. More intelligent than his twin, he was accomplished in the five studies. He attained Arhatship soon after joining the Buddha’s Order.

Piṇḍola-Bharadvāja (賓頭盧頗羅墮) is also called the Long-Eyebrowed Arhat, and Bharadvāja is one of the six famous family names of Brahmins. He is one of the sixteen great Arhats who remain in the world for various reasons. Piṇḍola was the son of a state minister and attained Arhatship at a young age. However, after he flaunted his transcendental powers, the Buddha rebuked him and forbade him to enter parinirvāṇa. So he is still in the world, delivering sentient beings.

Pūrṇa (富樓那) is also called Pūrṇa-Maitrāyaṇīputra, under his mother’s family name Maitrāyaṇī. He was the son of a minister of King Śuddhodana of the kingdom of Kapilavastu. He was very intelligent, and studied the Vedas at a young age. On the night Prince Siddhārtha left the palace to seek the truth, he too left with thirty friends to practice asceticism in the snow mountain. He attained the four dhyānas and the five transcendental powers. After Siddhārtha attained Buddhahood and did the first turning of the Dharma wheel in Deer Park, he became a monk in the Buddha’s Order and soon attained Arhatship. He is known as the foremost in expounding the Dharma because some 99,000 people were delivered through his teachings.

Rāhula (羅睺羅) was the only son of Śākyamuni Buddha and Yaśodharā. He had been in gestation for six years and was born on the lunar eclipse after the Buddha had attained perfect enlightenment. Rāhula was six years old when the Buddha returned to the city kingdom of Kapilavastu, and he became a novice monk at the command of the Buddha. Foremost in secret training, he is to be reborn as the eldest son of every future Buddha.

Revata (離婆多) is the younger brother of Śāriputra. In his meditation at a temple, he saw two ghosts fighting to eat a corpse. Realizing the illusoriness of the body, he renounced family life and became a disciple of the Buddha. Traveling barefoot in a snow country, his feet were frostbitten. The Buddha praised him for his contentment with few material things and allowed him to wear shoes.

Śāriputra (舍利弗), together with his own disciples, joined the Buddha’s Order soon after the Buddha’s enlightenment. After being a principal disciple for forty-four years, to avoid his grief over the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa, he requested and received the Buddha’s permission to enter parinirvāṇa sooner than the Buddha. He is considered the foremost in wisdom among the disciples.

Subhūti (須菩提) is the foremost among the disciples in understanding the meaning of emptiness. He is the principal interlocutor in the Prajñā-Pāramitā Sūtra.

Svāgata (莎伽陀). In the Buddha Pronounces the Sūtra of the Bhikṣu Svāgata’s Merit (T14n0501), this bhikṣu named Svāgata lay drunk under a tree. The Buddha praised his merit for subjugating a vengeful dragon and explained that Svāgata was not really drunk but pretended drunkenness for a purpose.

Upāli (優波離) had been a barber in the royal court. He became a disciple, together with Ānanda, six years after the Buddha had attained perfect enlightenment. Foremost in observing the precepts, he contributed to the compilation of the Vinaya in the first assembly of the Arhats after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa.

Upananda (跋難陀) and his brother Nanda (難陀) often caused disciplinary problems. Because of their misconduct, the Buddha had to add a few more precepts to the collection. Upananda rejoiced over the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa because in his opinion it freed the disciples from restraint.

Vakkula (薄拘羅), or Vakula, was a disciple who lived to age 160 without a moment’s illness or pain.

voice-hearer fruits (聲聞果).
     A. The four holy fruits achieved by voice-hearers on the Liberation Way are (1) Srotāpanna, the Stream Enterer, who will attain Arhatship after at most seven times being reborn as a god then a human; (2) Sakṛdāgāmin, the Once Returner, who will be reborn as a human only once more before attaining Arhatship; (3) Anāgāmin, the Never Returner, who will not be reborn as a human but will attain Arhatship in a pure abode heaven in the form realm; and (4) Arhat, the Foe Destroyer, who has attained the nirvāṇa with remnant by annihilating his fixation on having an autonomous self and eradicating all his afflictions.
     B. These four holy fruits and the corresponding nearness to them are called the eight holy ranks (八聖). Actually, one who is in the first rank, nearing the first holy fruit, is only a sage, and those in the higher seven ranks are holy beings. Those who are still learning (śaikṣa, 有學) are in the first seven ranks. Only Arhats, in the eight rank, are those who have nothing more to learn (aśaikṣa, 無學).

Vulture Peak Mountain. See Gṛdhrakūṭa Mountain.

water with the eight virtues (八功德水). According to the Praising the Pure Land Sūtra (T12n0367), these eight virtues are (1) purity and clarity, (2) coolness, (3) sweetness, (4) lightness and softness, (5) soothing, (6) peace and harmony, (7) quenching of thirst, and (8) nourishing and vitalizing.

Way (道). The Way in the Mahāyāna doctrine is to find the ultimate truth within one’s own mind. Those who see objects as existing outside their minds are considered not on the Way. The word Way (Dao or Tao) in Chinese Daoism means the natural order of things in the world, contrary to its meaning in Buddhist doctrine.

Wheel-Turning King (cakra-vartī-rāja, 轉輪王). A ruler, the wheels of whose chariot roll everywhere unimpeded. The wheel (cakra), one of the seven precious things he owns, comes in four ranks: iron, copper, silver, and gold. The iron wheel king rules over one continent, the south; the copper wheel king, over two, east and south; the silver wheel king, over three, east, west, and south; the gold wheel king, over all four continents. A Buddha, the universal Dharma King, turns the Dharma wheel, giving teachings to sentient beings.

Wolf Track Mountain (狼跡山). Identified with the Cock’s Foot Mountain (Kukkuṭapāda), northeast of Buddhagayā, in central India. It has three spires, like the upturned foot of a cock. Mahākāśyapa is now in samādhi in this mountain, waiting for the advent of Maitreya Bodhisattva.

yakṣa (夜叉). A demonic ghost that eats human flesh.

Yama (夜摩). The king of the underworld and superintendent of the karmic punishment of hell-dwellers.

yojana (由旬). The distance covered by one day’s march of an army or by one day’s walk of a yoked bull. One yojana may equal 4 or 8 krośas, each krośa being the distance at which a bull’s bellow can be heard. The estimated distance of a yojana varies from 8 to 19 kilometers.