一、古代

 1. 西塞罗：“直译”和“意译”的两分法；

 2. 昆体良：“与原作竞争”；

 3. 哲罗姆：文学用意译，《圣经》用直译；

 4. 奥古斯丁：《圣经》翻译凭“上帝的感召”和他的有关语言符号理论；

二、中世纪

 5. 波伊提乌：宁要“内容准确”，不要“风格优雅”的直译主张和译者应当放弃主观判断权的客观主义观点；

 6. 但丁：“文学不可译”论；

三、文艺复兴时期

 7. 伊拉斯谟：不屈从神学权威、《圣经》翻译靠译者的语言知识；

 8. 路德：翻译必须采用民众语言的人文主义观点；

 9. 多雷：译者必须理解原作内容、通晓两种语言、避免逐词对译、采用通俗形式、讲究译作风格的“翻译五原则”；

四、17至19世纪

 10. 巴特：“作者是主人”（译者是仆人）、译文必须“不增不减不改”的准确翻译理论；

 11. 德莱顿：“词译”、“释译”、“拟译”的翻译三分法和翻译是艺术的观点；

 12. 泰特勒：优秀译作的标准和“译作应完全复写出原作的思想、译作的风格和手法应和原作属于同一性质、译作应具

 1. Semantics

    The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.

 2. G Leech's seven types of meaning

    G. Leech in a more moderate tone recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics, first published in 1974, as follows:

    (1). Conceptual meaning: logical, cognitive, or denotative content.

    (2). Connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.

    (3). Social meaning: What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.

    (4). Affective meaning: What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.

    (5). Reflected meaning: What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression_r.

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Division Two: The Bible and Christianity

 I. General Introduction

      1. Among all the religions by which people seek to worship, Christianity is the by far the most influential in the West.

      2. The close relationship between Judaism(犹太教） and Christianity（基督教）

        (1). It was the Jewish tradition which gave birth to Christianity.

        (2). Both Judaism and Christianity originated in Palestine(巴勒斯坦）.

      3. Hebrews(希伯来人)

        (1). The ancestors of the Jews were the Hebrews.

        (2)

Explanations

 1. the British Isles（不列颠群岛）

 (1)The British Isles lie northwest of Europe in the Atlantic Ocean. (2) They consist two large islands--Britain and Ireland and several small islands.

2. Celtic people（凯尔特民族）

 (1)They were people from north-western Europe who invaded Britain around 700 BC. (2) By the time the Romans first landed in 55BC, the Celtic culture was well established. (3) They are ancestors of the Scots, Welsh and Irish today.

3. the Roman Occupation（罗马征服）

  (1) The Romans first invaded Britain in 55BC. (2) They eventually conquered the various Celtic kingdoms then flourishing in England, Wales and the Scottish Lowlands. (3) The Roman occupation lasted for about 350 years.

4. the Highlanders（苏格兰高原人）

  (1) They are the Scots who live in the mountainous regions of the highlands in No