Perry, A Sanskrit Primer

Introduction.

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Alphabet.

1. Sanskrit is commonly written in what is called the Devanāgarī alphabet. The characters of this, and the European characters which will be used in transliterating them, are as follows:

                                     Vowels.

导论

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字母表

1. 梵语一般用所谓天城体来书写。其字母和用来转写它们的拉丁字母如下：

2. The above order is that in which the sounds are catalogued by native grammarians; and European scholars have adopted it as the alphabetic order, for dictionaries, etc. The writing runs from left to right.

2. 上述顺序是印度语法学家编排语音的顺序；而欧洲学者采用它作为字典等的字母顺序。书写从左至右。

[AbyssThinIce注]

1. 本对照一般采用现在通行的转写法。

2. āi、āu现在一般转写为ai、au。转写为āi、āu在讲述连音（sandhi）时也许有其方便之处。

3. 鼻化音现在一般转写为ṃ。

4. 喉鼻音现在一般转写为ṅ。

5. 腭咝音现在一般转写为ś。

6. 天城体的不同字体，字形略有差异，本对照一般采用现在通行的字体：a采用अ，ā采用आ，ṇ采用 ण्，等等。

7. 原始印欧语的ḷ基本上都已变为ṛ。ḷ只出现在词根kḷp中。

8. 原始印欧语没有ṝ、ḹ。ṝ是梵语在变格等中通过类推而产生的音。既然原始印欧语的ḷ基本上都已变为ṛ，所以梵语没有产生ḹ。

3. The theory of the devanāgarī mode of writing is syllabic and consonantal. That is, it regards as the written unit, not the simple sound, but the syllable; and further, it regards as the substantial part of the syllable the consonant (or the consonants) preceding the vowel--this latter being merely implied, as is the case with short अ a, except when initial, or, if written, being written by a subordinate sign attached to the consonant.

3. 天城体式书写的原理是音节性的和辅音性的。即，它不是将单音，而是将音节看作书写单位；而且，它将元音前面的辅音（或辅音组）看作音节的重要部分－－该元音只是隐含的，短अ a即是如此，除非在开头；或者如果要书写，则用附着在辅音上的从属符号来书写。

4. Hence follow these two principles:

A. The forms of the vowel-characters given above are used only when the vowel forms a syllable by itself, or is not combined with a preceding consonant: that is, when it is initial, or preceded by another vowel. In combination with a consonant, other modes of representation are used.

B. If more than one consonant precede a vowel, forming with it a single syllable, their characters must be combined into a single character.

4. 于是有这两个原则：

A. 只在元音本身构成音节、或者不与前面的辅音结合时：即，当它在开头、或者前面有另一个元音时，才使用上面给出的元音字母形式。在与辅音结合时，使用其他表示方式。

B. 如果元音前面有多个辅音与它构成单个音节，则它们的字母必须结合为单个字母。

5. According to the Hindu mode of dividing syllables, each syllable must end in a vowel, or visarga, or anusvāra, except at the end of the word; and as ordinary Hindu usage does not divide the words of a sentence in writing, a final consonant is combined into one syllable with the initial vowel or consonant of the following word, so that a syllable ends in a consonant only at the end of the sentence.

Thus the sentence kṣetreṣu siktābhir meghānām adbhir dhānyaṃ prarūḍham -- 'by the water which drops from the clouds upon the fields the grain grows tall' -- would be considered as consisting of the syllables kṣe tre ṣu si ktā bhi rme ghā nā ma dbhi rdhā nyaṃ pra rū ḍham. Each of these syllables would be indicated by a single group of signs, without any reference whatever to the division of the words composing the sentence; and the syllables are always written independently, with more or less closeness of approach; either like this:

क्षे त्रे षु सि क्ता भि र्मे घा ना म द्भि र्धा न्यं प्र रू ढम्  -- or thus: क्षेत्रेषुसिक्ताभिर्मेघानामद्भिर्धान्यंप्ररूढम्.

5. 根据印度人划分音节的方式，每个音节必须以元音、气化音、或鼻化音结尾，除非位于词末；由于印度人通常习惯在书写时不划分句子的各词，结尾辅音与后一个词的开头元音或辅音结合为一个音节，所以只在句末，音节才以辅音结尾。

这样，句子kṣetreṣu siktābhir meghānām adbhir dhānyaṃ prarūḍham－－‘靠从云上滴下的水，谷物长高’被认为由音节kṣe tre ṣu si ktā bhi rme ghā nā ma dbhi rdhā nyaṃ pra rū ḍham组成。每个音节用一组符号表示，而完全不管构成句子的各词如何划分；各音节总是独立书写，离得或近或远；要么像这样：

क्षे त्रे षु सि क्ता भि र्मे घा ना म द्भि र्धा न्यं प्र रू ढम्－－要么像这样：क्षेत्रेषुसिक्ताभिर्मेघानामद्भिर्धान्यंप्ररूढम्。

6. In Sanskrit works printed in Europe, the common practice is to separate the words so far as this can be done without any alteration of the written form. Thus, इन्द्राय नमः indrāya namaḥ; but तत्सवितुर्वरेण्यम् tat savitur vareṇyam, because the final त् t and र् r are not written with their full forms. But some few works have been printed, in which, by a free use of a sign calledvirāma (see below, §8), the individual words are separated. In transliterated texts there is no good reason for printing otherwise than with all the words separated.

6. 在欧洲印刷的梵语作品中，通常是在不改变书写形式的前提下，将词尽量分开。从而，इन्द्राय नमः indrāya namaḥ；但是तत्सवितुर्वरेण्यम् tat savitur vareṇyam，因为末尾त् t和र् r没有以它们的完整形式写出。但是少数一些作品随意使用称为virāma（辅音点）的符号来印刷（见下，§8），将各个词分开。在转写文本中，没有理由不将所有词分开来印刷。

7. Under A. Vowels combined with preceding consonants are written as follows:

1. a: Short a has no written sign at all; the consonant-sign itself implies a following a, unless some other vowel-sign is attached to it (or else the virāma -- see below, §8). Thus the consonant-signs given above are really the signs for ka, kha，ca, cha, etc. (as far as हha).

7. 依原则A. 与前面的辅音结合的元音如下书写：

1. a：短a根本没有书写符号；辅音符号本身隐含后面的a，除非某个其他元音符号附着在它上面（否则要用辅音点－－见下，§8）。因此，上面给出的辅音符号其实是ka、kha、ca、cha等等（直到ह ha）的符号。

2. ā: का kā. चा cā. धा dhā etc.

2. ā：का kā. चा cā. धा dhā等等。

3. i and ī: कि ki. पि pi. धि dhi. -- की kī. पी pī. धी dhī. The hook above, turning to the left or to the right, is historically the essential part of the character, having been originally the whole of it: the hooks were only later prolonged, so as to reach all the way down beside the consonant. Observe that the i-hooks and the u-hooks, respectively above and below the line, are analogous in turning to the left for the short vowel and to the right for the long.

3. i 和 ī：कि ki. पि pi. धि dhi. -- की kī. पी pī. धी dhī. 上面向左或向右的弯钩曾经是字母的主要部分，起初是它的全部：该弯钩只是后来才被延长，一直下垂到辅音的旁边。注意i弯钩和u弯钩，分别在直线上下，都是向左表示短元音，向右表示长元音。

4. u and ū: कु ku. चु cu. बु bu. -- कू kū. चू cū. भू bhū. Owing to the necessities of combination, consonant and vowel-sign are sometimes disguised; thus, दु du, दू dū; रु ru, रू rū; हु or http://s4/bmiddle/004fGOHmzy6OHR6Bopte3&690 hu, हू hū.

4. u 和 ū：कु ku. चु cu. बु bu. -- कू kū. चू cū. भू bhū. 由于结合的需要，辅音和元音符号有时变形了；于是，दु du，दू dū；रु ru，रू rū；हु 或 http://s4/bmiddle/004fGOHmzy6OHR6Bopte3&690 hu，हू hū。

5. ṛ and ṝ : कृ kṛ. पृ pṛ. -- कॄ kṝ. तॄ tṝ. With the h-sign, the vowel-hook is usually attached to the middle; thus, हृ hṛ.

5. ṛ 和 ṝ ：कृ kṛ. पृ pṛ. -- कॄ kṝ. तॄ tṝ. 对于h符号，元音弯钩通常附着在中间；于是，हृ hṛ。

6. ḷ: कॢ kḷ.

6. ḷ：कॢ kḷ。

7. Diphthongs. e: के ke. पे pe. ये ye. ai: कै kai. धै dhai. o: को  ko. भो bho. au: कौ kau. रौ rau.

In some printed texts the signs for o and au are separated, the े or ै being placed over the consonant-sign, and not over the perpendicular stroke; thus, केा ko, कैा kau.

7. 双元音。e：के ke. पे pe. ये ye. ai：कै kai. धै dhai. o：को  ko. भो bho. au：कौ kau. रौ rau.

在有些印本中，o和au的符号都是分离的，े或ै被放在辅音符号上方，而不是竖划上方；于是，केा ko，कैा kau。

8. A consonant-sign may be made to signify the sound of that consonant alone, without an added vowel, by writing beneath it a stroke called the virāma ('rest', 'stop'); thus, क् k, ह्h, द् d. Strictly, the virāma should be used only at the end of a sentence; but it is often used by scribes, or in print, in the middle of a word or sentence, to avoid awkward or difficult combinations; thus, लिड् भि: liḍbhiḥ, लिट्सु liṭsu.

8. 通过在辅音符号下写一个辅音点（virāma，‘停止’），可以使它只表示其辅音，而不带元音；从而，क्k，ह् h，द् d。严格地说，辅音点应该只用在句末；但是抄写员或印刷时经常在词或句中用它，以避免笨拙或困难的结合；从而，लिड् भि：liḍbhiḥ，लिट्सु liṭsu。

9. Under B. The combinations of consonants are in general not difficult. The perpendicular and horizontal lines are common to almost all; and if two or more are to be combined, the following
method is pursued. The characteristic part of a consonant-sign that is to be added to another is taken (to the exclusion of the perpendicular or of the horizontal framing-line, or of both), and they are put together according to convenience, either side by side, or one above the other: in some combinations either arrangement is allowed. The consonant to be pronounced first is set first in the one arrangement, and above in the other arrangement. Only the consonant at the right of a horizontal group, and that at the top of a perpendicular group, are written in full.

Examples of the horizontal arrangement are:

ग्ग gga, ज्ज jja, प्य pya, न्म nma, त्थ ttha, भ्य bhya, स्क ska, ष्ण ṣṇa.

Examples of the perpendicular arrangement are:

क्क kka, च्च cca, क्व kva, ञ्ज ñja, प्त pta, त्न tna.

9. 依原则B. 辅音之间的结合一般不难。竖线和横线几乎大家都有；如果两个或多个（辅音）要结合，则采用下述方法。取要加到另一个辅音符号上的辅音符号的特征性部分（不包括竖或横框架线之一或两者），将它们酌情或左右、或上下合在一起：在有些结合中，两种排列都是允许的。先发音的辅音放在前种排列的左边、后种排列的上边。只有水平组中右边的辅音、和垂直组上边的辅音才写得完整。

水平排列的例子是：

ग्ग gga，ज्ज jja，प्य pya，न्म nma，त्थ ttha，भ्य bhya，स्क ska，ष्ण ṣṇa。

垂直排列的例子是：

क्क kka，च्च cca，क्व kva，ञ्ज ñja，प्त pta，त्न tna。

10. In some combinations there is more or less abbreviation or disguise of the independent form of a consonant-sign.

Thus,

of क् k in क्त kta; and in क्ण kṇa, क्य kya etc.;
of त् t in त्त tta;

of द् d in द्ग dga, द्द dda, द्धddha, द्भ dbha etc.;

of म् m and य् y, when following other consonants: thus, क्य kya, क्म kma, ङ्म ṅma, द्म dma, द्यdya, ह्म hma, ह्य hya, ट्य ṭhya, ढ्य ḍhya;

of श् ś, which generally becomes http://s7/mw690/004fGOHmzy6NCPLq0E676&690 when followed by a consonant; thus, श्च śca, श्न śna, श्ल śla,http://s14/mw690/004fGOHmzy6NCQr0hk14d&690 śya. The same change is usual when a vowel-sign is added below; thus, http://s16/mw690/004fGOHmzy6NCQ1I23Z2f&690 śṛ.

10. 在有些结合中，辅音符号的独立形式多少有些简略或变形。

从而，

क् k 在 क्त kta 和 क्ण kṇa、क्य kya 等中；

त् t 在 त्त tta 中；

द् d 在 द्ग dga、द्द dda、द्ध ddha、द्भ dbha 等中；

म् m 和 य् y 在其他辅音后：从而，क्य kya，क्म kma，ङ्म ṅma，द्म dma，द्य dya，ह्म hma，ह्य hya，ट्यṭhya，ढ्य ḍhya；

श् ś 在辅音前一般变为  ；从而，श्च śca，श्न śna，श्ल śla，http://s14/mw690/004fGOHmzy6NCQr0hk14d&690 śya。在下加元音符号时通常发生同样的变化；从而， śu， śṛ。

11. Other combinations, of not quite obvious value, are ण्ण ṇṇa, ष्ट ṣṭa, ष्ठ ṣṭha; and the compounds of ह् h, as ह्ण hṇa, ह्न hna.

11. 没有很明显的价值的其他结合是ण्ण ṇṇa，ष्ट ṣṭa，ष्ठ ṣṭha；和ह् h的结合，如ह्ण hṇa，ह्न hna。

12. In a case or two, no trace of the constituent letters is recognizable; thus, क्ष kṣa, ज्ञjña.

12. 在一两种情况下，作为组成部分的字母无迹可寻；从而，क्ष kṣa，ज्ञ jña。

[AbyssThinIce注]

一个最常用的动词तिष्ठति tiṣṭhati就用了ष्ठ ṣṭha，怎么能说是“of not quite obvious value”？

13. The semivowel र् r, in making combinations with other consonants, is treated in a wholly peculiar manner, analogous with that of the vowels.

1. As the first of a group of consonants it is written with a hook above, opening to the right (like the subjoined sign of ṛ); thus, र्क rka, र्प्त rpta. When a compound consonant thus containing r as its first member is followed by one of the
vowels i, ī, e, o, ai, au, with or without a nasal symbol, the r-sign must stand at the extreme right; thus, र्के rke, र्को rko, र्कौ rkau, र्कि rki, र्की rkī, र्कं rkaṃ, र्कांसि rkāṃsi，र्भींrbhīṃ.

2. If pronounced after another consonant or consonants, r is indicated by a slanting stroke below, to the left; thus, ग्रgra, प्र pra, स्र sra, द्रdra. And, with modifications of the preceding consonant-sign like those noted above, त्रtra, श्र śra. In the middle of a group, r has the same sign as at the end; thus, ग्र्य grya, स्र्व srva.

3. When र（AbyssThinIce注：似应为र्） r is to be combined with a following ऋ ṛ, it is the vowel which is written in full, with its initial character, and the consonant in subordination to it; thus, र्ऋ rṛ, निर्ऋति nirṛti.

13. 半元音र् r在与其他辅音结合时，以完全独特的方式来处理，类似于元音。

1. 作为一组辅音中的第一个，它写作上面的弯钩，口朝右（就像ṛ的附加符号）；从而，र्क rka, र्प्त rpta。当这样包含r作为其第一个成员的复合辅音后面跟着带或不带鼻音符号的元音i、ī、e、o、ai、au之一时，r符号必须位于最右端；从而，र्के rke，र्को rko，र्कौ rkau，र्कि rki，र्की rkī，र्कं rkaṃ，र्कांसि rkāṃsi，र्भीं rbhīṃ。

2. 如果在另一个或多个辅音后发音，r用下面一撇表示；从而，ग्र gra，प्र pra，स्रsra，द्रdra。同时像上面指出的那样改变前面的辅音符号，त्रtra，श्रśra。在一组中间，r具有与在末尾相同的符号；从而，ग्र्य grya，स्र्वsrva。

3. 当र（AbyssThinIce注：似应为र्） r 与后面的ऋ ṛ结合时，是元音以其作为开头时的字母完整写出，而辅音则从属于它；从而，र्ऋ rṛ，निर्ऋति nirṛti。

[AbyssThinIce注]

原书的字体和本对照的电脑字体在r和鼻音符号的位置关系方面显然不一致。）

14. Combinations of three, four, or even five consonants (this latter excessively rare) are made according to the same rules; thus, त्त्व ttva, http://s14/mw690/004fGOHmzy6NEiFFvUVcd&690 ddhya, द्व्य dvya, द्र्य drya, प्स्व psva, त्स्यtsya, श्च्य ścya, ष्ठ्य ṣṭhya; http://s9/mw690/004fGOHmzy6NEiz5fuMf8&690 ṣṭrya, त्स्म्य tsmya; र्त्स्न्य rtsnya.

14. 三个、四个、或甚至五个辅音（此后者极其罕见）根据同样的规则来结合；从而，त्त्व ttva，http://s14/mw690/004fGOHmzy6NEiFFvUVcd&690 ddhya，द्व्यdvya，द्र्य drya，प्स्व psva，त्स्य tsya，श्च्य ścya，ष्ठ्य ṣṭhya； ṅkṣva， ṣṭrya，त्स्म्य tsmya；र्त्स्न्यrtsnya。

15. Both MSS. and type-fonts differ considerably in their management of consonant-combinations, but a little practice will enable one who is thoroughly familiar with the simple signs and
with the principles of combination to decipher, as well as to make for himself, all such groups.

15. 写本和铅字在处理辅音结合方面差别都很大，但是略微练习，一个完全熟悉单个符号和结合原则的人就能解读和自己构造所有这些组。

16. A sign (ऽ) called the avagraha, or 'separator', is used in printed texts to mark the elision of initial a after final e or o (see below, §119, 158): thus ते ऽब्रुवन् te 'bruvan. But some texts, especially those printed in India, dispense with this sign.

In our transliteration this sign will be represented by the inverted comma, as in the example just given. In the MSS. the ऽ is also used as a hyphen, and sometimes as a mark of hiatus.

16. 称为avagraha（‘分隔符’）的符号(ऽ) 用在印本中来标记末尾e或o后的开头a的省音（见下，§119,158）：从而，ते ऽब्रुवन् te 'bruvan。但是有些文本，尤其是印度印刷的，不用这个符号。

在我们的转写中，这个符号用单引号来表示，如刚才给出的例子中那样。在写本中，ऽ也用作连字号，而有时则用作元音连续号。

17. The sign ॰ is used to mark an omission of something easily understood (whether from the context, or from previous knowledge), and thus becomes a mark of abbreviation; thus, गतस् ॰तम्॰तेन gatas -tam -tena, i.e. gatam gatena etc.

17. 符号॰用来标记（不管从上下文，还是从先前的知识）易于理解的某物的省略，从而成为省略号；从而，गतस् ॰तम् ॰तेन gatas -tam -tena，即gatam gatena等等。

18. The only signs of punctuation are । and ॥.

18. 标点只有।和॥。

19. The numeral figures are

१ 1, २ 2, ३ 3, ४ 4, ५ 5, ६ 6, ७ 7, ८ 8, ९ 9, ० 0.

In combination, to express larger numbers, they are used precisely as are European digits; thus, २४ 24, ४८५ 485, ७६२० 7620. This system of notation originated in India, and was brought to Europe by the Arabs, who call it the Indian system, as we style it the Arabic.

19. 数字是

१ 1，२ 2，३ 3，४ 4，५ 5，६ 6，७ 7，८ 8，९ 9，० 0。

结合起来表示更大的数时，它们和欧洲数字的用法完全相同；从而，२४ 24，४८५ 485，७६२० 7620。这种计数法源于印度，并由阿拉伯人带到欧洲，阿拉伯人称之为印度数字，就像我们称之为阿拉伯数字。

[AbyssThinIce注]

可以明显看出，原书所用印度数字的字形和电脑字形有较大差异。

20. In writing Sanskrit the Hindus generally begin at the left of the letter, and make the horizontal top-stroke last; thus, http://s8/mw690/004fGOHmzy6NGAmQSTd77&690.But often the horizontal stroke is made first, and the perpendicular stroke added without raising the pen from the paper; thus, http://s4/mw690/004fGOHmzy6NGAACB7J03&690.

20. 在写梵语时，印度人一般从字母的左边开始，最后写顶上的一横；从而，http://s8/mw690/004fGOHmzy6NGAmQSTd77&690。但是经常先写一横，不将笔从纸上抬起而加一竖；从而，。

[AbyssThinIce注]

原文ग的第一划上面不该带一短横。