Unit Two  Old English and Beowulf

Warming-up 常识预习
1. How much do you know about Old English? What are the major characteristics of Old English?
2. Which poem has achieved national epic status in Britain?
3. Have you ever seen the movie based on Beowulf before?
4. Are you familiar with the Iliad? Who wrote this poem?
5. Two poetic figures commonly found in Old English poetry are the kenning and litotes. Do you know the meanings of these two words?
6. What does the Old English poetry deal with?
 
Lecturette 专题讲座

                                  Old English and Beowulf
Old English literature encompasses literature written in Anglo-Saxon during the 600-year Anglo-Saxon period of England, from the mid-5th century to the Norman Conquest of 1066. Among the most important works of this period is the poem Beowulf, which has achieved national epic status in Britain. Two poetic figures commonly found in Old English poetry are the kenning, an often formulaic phrase that describes one thing in terms of another, for example in Beowulf, the sea is called the whale’s road, and litotes, a dramatic understatement employed by the author for ironic effect. The Old English poetry which has received the most attention deals with the Germanic heroic past. The longest (3,182 lines), and most important, is Beowulf, which tells the story of the legendary Geatish hero Beowulf who is the title character. The story is set in Scandinavia and the tale likewise probably is of Scandinavian origin. The story is biographical and sets the tone for much of the rest of Old English poetry. It has achieved the same status as the Iliad, and is of interest to historians, anthropologists, literary critics, and students the world over.
Beowulf is an Old English heroic epic poem of unknown authorship, dating as recorded in the Nowell Codex manuscript from between the 8th and the early 11th century, set in Denmark and Sweden. Commonly cited as one of the most important works of Anglo-Saxon literature, Beowulf has been the subject of much scholarly study, theory, speculation, discourse, and, at 3182 lines, has been noted for its length. In the poem, Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, battles three antagonists: Grendel, who has been attacking the resident warriors of a mead hall called Heorot in Denmark; Grendel’s mother; and an unnamed dragon. The last battle takes place later in life, after returning to Geatland (modern southern Sweden), where Beowulf has become king. In the final battle, Beowulf is fatally wounded. After his death his retainers bury him in a tumulus in Geatland.
The main protagonist, Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, comes to the aid of Hroðgar, the king of the Danes, whose great hall, Heorot, is plagued by the monster Grendel. Beowulf kills both Grendel and Grendel’s mother, the latter with a magical sword. Later in his life, Beowulf is himself king of the Geats, and finds his realm terrorized by a dragon whose treasure had been stolen from his hoard in a burial mound. He attacks the dragon with the help of his thegns, but they do not succeed. Beowulf decides to follow the dragon into its lair, at Earnanæs, but only his young Swedish relative Wiglaf dares join him. Beowulf finally slays the dragon, but is mortally wounded. He is buried in a tumulus by the sea. Beowulf is considered an epic poem in that the main character is a hero who travels great distances to prove his strength at impossible odds against supernatural demons and beasts. The poet who composed Beowulf, while objective in telling the tale, nonetheless utilizes a certain style to maintain excitement and adventure within the story. An elaborate history of characters and their lineages are spoken of, as well as their interactions with each other, debts owed and repaid, and deeds of valor. The events described in the poem take place in the late 5th century, after the Anglo-Saxons had begun migration and settlement in England, and before the beginning of the 7th century, a time when the Saxons were either newly arrived or in close contact with their fellow Germanic kinsmen in Scandinavia and Northern Germany. The poem could have been transmitted in England by people of Geatish origins. It has been suggested that Beowulf was first composed in the 7th century at Rendlesham in East Anglia, as Sutton Hoo also shows close connections with Scandinavia, and also that the East Anglian royal dynasty, the Wuffings, were descendants of the Geatish Wulfings. Others have associated this poem with the court of King Alfred, or with the court of King Canute. The poem deals with legends, i.e., it was composed for entertainment and does not separate between fictional elements and real historic events. Scholars generally agree that many of the personalities of Beowulf also appear in Scandinavian sources, but this does not only concern people, but also clans and some of the events.
The poem is divided between Beowulf's battles with Grendel ( as well as Beowulf’s battle with Grendel’s mother) and with the dragon.
Beowulf begins with the story of King Hroðgar, who built the great hall Heorot for his people. In it he, his wife Wealhþeow, and his warriors spend their time singing and celebrating, until Grendel, an outcast from society who is angered by the singing, attacks the hall and kills and devours many of Hroðgar's warriors while they sleep. But Grendel dares not touch the throne of Hroðgar, because he is described as protected by a powerful god. Hroðgar and his people, helpless against Grendel's attacks, abandon Heorot. Beowulf, a young warrior from Geatland, hears of Hroðgar's troubles and with his king's permission leaves his homeland to help Hroðgar. Beowulf and his men spend the night in Heorot. After they fall asleep, Grendel enters the hall and attacks, devouring one of Beowulf's men. Beowulf, who bears no weapon as this would be an unfair advantage over the unarmed beast, has been feigning sleep and leaps up to clench Grendel’s hand. The two battle until it seems as though the hall might collapse. Beowulf’s retainers draw their swords and rush to his aid, but their blades can not pierce Grendel’s skin as he is immune to human weapons. Finally, Beowulf tears Grendel’s arm from his body at the shoulder and Grendel runs to his home in the marshes to die.
The next night, after celebrating Grendel’s death, Hroðgar and his men sleep in Heorot. Grendel’s mother appears and attacks the hall. She kills Hroðgar's most trusted warrior, Æschere, in revenge for Grendel’s death. Hroðgar, Beowulf, and their men track Grendel’s mother to her lair under a lake. Beowulf prepares himself for battle; he is presented with a sword, Hrunting, by a warrior called Unferth. After stipulating a number of conditions to Hroðgar in case of his death (including the taking in of his kinsmen and the inheritance by Unferth of Beowulf’s estate), Beowulf dives into the lake. He is swiftly detected and attacked by Grendel’s mother. However, she is unable to harm Beowulf through his armor and drags him to the bottom of the lake. In a cavern containing Grendel’s body and the remains of men that the two have killed, Grendel’s mother and Beowulf engage in fierce combat. At first, Grendel’s mother appears to prevail. Beowulf, finding that Hrunting cannot harm his foe, discards it in fury. Beowulf is again saved from his opponent’s attack by his armor and, grasping a mighty sword of the giants from Grendel’s mother’s armory (which no other man could have hefted in battle), Beowulf beheads her. Traveling further into the lair, Beowulf discovers Grendel’s corpse and severs his head. Beowulf then returns to the surface and to his men at the ‘ninth hour’ (about 3pm). He returns to Heorot, where Hroðgar gives Beowulf many gifts, including the sword Nægling, his family’s heirloom.
Beowulf returns home and eventually becomes king of his own people. One day, late in Beowulf’s life, a slave steals a golden cup from the lair of an unnamed dragon (sometimes referred to as Sua) at Earnaness. When the dragon sees that the cup has been stolen, it leaves its cave in a rage, burning everything in sight. Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the dragon, but when Beowulf is wounded by the dragon, his warriors run away in fear. Only one of the warriors, a brave young man named Wiglaf, stays to help Beowulf. The two slay the dragon, but Beowulf dies from his wounds. After he is cremated, Beowulf is buried in Geatland on a cliff overlooking the sea, where sailors are able to see his tumulus. The dragon’s treasure is buried with him, in accordance with Beowulf’s wishes, rather than distributed to his people. There is a curse associated with the hoard and it is also a Germanic and Scandinavian burial practice.
It is widely accepted that there are three funerals in Beowulf. These funerals help to outline changes in the poem’s story as well as the audiences’ views on earthly possessions, battle and glory. The funerals are also paired with the three battles described above. The three funerals share similarities regarding the offerings for the dead and the change in theme through the description of each funeral.
The first funeral in the poem is of Scyld Scefing (translated in some versions as Shield Shiefson) the king of the Danes. The first fitt helps the poet illustrate the settings of the poem by introducing Hrothgar’s lineage. The funeral leads to the introduction of the hero, Beowulf and his confrontation with the first monster, Grendel. This funeral also helps the poet to develop the plot to lead into the confrontation between the protagonist, Beowulf, and the main antagonist, Grendel.
The second funeral in the poem is that of Hildeburg’s kin and is the second fitt of this poem. The funeral is sung in Heorot to celebrate Beowulf’s victory over Grendel. It also signifies the beginning of the protagonist’s battle against Grendel’s mother. The death of Hildeburg’s brother, son(s), and husband are the results of battle. The battle also leads to Scyld’s death and mirrors the use of funeral offerings for the dead with extravagant possessions. Although the poet maintains the theme of possessions as important even in death, the glory of battle is challenged by the vicious nature of war. The second funeral displays different concepts from the first and a change of direction in the plot that leads to Beowulf’s fight against Grendel’s Mother.
The final funeral of the poem is Beowulf’s funeral. After the final battle against the dragon, Beowulf receives fatal wounds and dies. The greatness of Beowulf’s life is demonstrated through this funeral, particularly through the many offerings of his people. In addition, the immense hoard of the dragon is buried with the hero. Beowulf’s funeral is the fourth fitt of the poem and acts as an epilogue for the hero who is the, “most gracious and fair-minded, kindest to his people and keenest to win fame.”

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Old English: the English language from the middle of the 5th to the beginning of the 12th century. Also called Anglo-Saxon 古英语
Anglo-Saxon: a member of one of the Germanic peoples, the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, who settled in Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries. 盎格鲁-撒克逊人, 盎格鲁-撒克逊人后裔
Norman Conquest: the conquest of England by the Normans under William the Conqueror beginning in 1066.诺曼征服
kenning: a figurative, usually compound expression used in place of a name or noun, especially in Old English and Old Norse poetry隐喻语
litotes: a figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite, as in This is no small problem.  间接肯定法
Geat: a member of an ancient Germanic people of southern Sweden conquered by the Swedes in the sixth century A.D.雅特人
Iliad: ancient Greek epic poem in 24 books attributed to the poet Homer(荷马). 《伊利亚特》

Going-over 复习反馈
Multiple-choice Questions
1. Old English literature encompasses literature written in Anglo-Saxon during the 600-year Anglo-Saxon period of England, from the ______ century to the Norman Conquest of 1066.
A. mid-4th        B. mid-5th      C. mid-6th
2. Among the most important works of this period is the poem ______, which has achieved national epic status in Britain.
A. the Odyssey       B. the Iliad      C. Beowulf
3. The Old English poetry which has received the most attention deals with the _____ heroic past.
A. Germanic       B. Scottish      C. British
4. The longest and most important poem during this period is_____.
A. the Holy Bible      B. the Iliad      C. Beowulf
5. Beowulf tells the story of the legendary_____ hero Beowulf who is the title character.
A. French        B. Roman      C. Geatish
6. The poem Beowulf is set in______.
A. Ireland        B. Scandinavia     C. Scotland
7. Beowulf has achieved the same status as_____.
A. the Bible        B. the Old Testament    C. the Iliad
8. In the poem, Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, battles _____antagonists.
A. one         B. two       C. three
9. After the final battle against _____, Beowulf receives fatal wounds and dies.
A. the wolf        B. the tiger      C. the dragon

Essay Questions
10. Summarize the major characteristics of the Old English poetry.
11. Give a brief introduction to Beowulf.
12. Compare Beowulf with the Iliad.