Introduction

Background of this study and Related Literature Review

           Word-formation is well-known as morphology which in linguistics represents the study of construction rules of words (see, Ching, 2003). Language learners should study words for words are the most basic elements of a language (Finegen & Besnier). According to Yule (2006), he claimed that morphology aims to study of word-formation and to analyze its basic structures’ elements as much as language learners can (pp. 62-63). Morphology, therefore, is the study of word-formation that examines a word’s segmentation into meaningful elements (Yule, 2006, pp. 63-64).

First of all, there have been a great number of studies in morphology. Since 1965, morphological studies have covered the linguistic fields (Stekauer, 1999, pp.75-76). This phenomenon indicated that morphological research was much concerned by linguists. In addition, the term morphology covered any science areas in the early 19 century and the term morphology has been keeping the same concerns in the interval since then (Aronoff, 1983, p. 355). There had two reasons making morphology as the central linguistics’ studies (Aronoff, 1983, p. 355). One is the traditional grammar which had been morphologically based in language studies. Another is the comparative method of historical linguistics providing the successes’ studies in the 19 century by linguists (Aronoff, 1983, pp. 355-356).  Moving toward the 20 century, morphological studies have two major changes: one is that structure linguistics support historical linguistics; another is the phonemic principle permits the study of sound systems without reference to other formal aspects of language (Aronoff, 1983, pp. 355-357).

Moreover, although many researchers have studied morphology, they seem to have little agreement on methodology in the study of word-formation or theoretical approaches as well (see, Plag, 2003). This viewing may indicate that each of the researchers and linguists have different concepts of word-formation. Certainly, this indication assumes that not all researchers study bilingual word-formation although the study of word-formation can help language learners efficiently learn a new language. As well-known, many researchers pointed our word-formation in English; however, not many researchers claimed word-formation in Chinese. According to this situation, many linguists recently start to discover new strategy to compare differences and similarity in bilingual language studies. 

As for answering this bilingual teaching need, Chinese scholars have begun to notice the construction rules of Chinese words since Qin Dynasty, they, however, focus on Chinese research only.  Further, many Chinese scholars have started to study Chinese word formation after the “May 4, (1919) movement”.  By many years’ studies, the systematic Chinese word-formation was published by Ren (1980) in China Social Sciences Press. In his book, He pointed out five approaches to word-formation: morphological approach; syntactical approach; rhetorical approach; phonetic approach and synthetic approach (see, Wang, 1989). Ching (2000) additionally have systematically studied Chinese lexicon and was published a book The Chinese lexicon. In his book, he abundantly compares possible similarity and difference between Chinese and English. Therefore, many linguists have been studying word-formation in bilingual comparison and contrast since then.

The purpose of this study

By reviewing the linguistic studies of word-formation both in western and in eastern, linguists have been studying word-formation. Many linguists consider that Chinese language is quiet different from English. Although there have differences, the current writer assumes that Chinese and English have possible similarities, thus aiming to discover possible similarities and differences between Chinese and English and to give implication for language teachers in bilingual teaching. Specially, this present study will compare compound; derivation; and conversion in Chinese and English mainly through texts of The Great Learning (大学, da xue) and some examples are possibly from Ching (2000) as well.

Theoretical framework

As for achieving this current study, the researcher will use these theoretical frameworks. Word-formation processes provided by Yule (2006) will firstly be used (pp.54-57). He indicated that combining process is very common in language using of expanding word learning; conversion process is a change in the function of word and this process is particularly productive in modern English; and derivation process is to add affixes to roots forming a new word.

Ren’s approaches (1980) will additionally be used (See, Ching, 2000, Wang, 1997). Although Chinese is monolingual, it can be found some morphological patters similar to word-formation patters in English. Chinese compounding word-formation is to be added one word to another, and then to be formulates a new word. This new word might be based on these two words’ meaning to be produced. In addition, word conversion is well-known as 通假字(Tong Jiao Xiao Zi, meaning Conversion) especially shown in Chinese classical literature. Finally, Chinese derivation word formation is to add different kinds of Chinese characters before words or after words as the similar way of English affixes using of word formation.

Cross-linguistic approach provided by Koda (2005) will finally be used in this current study (pp. 1-50). Cross-linguistic approach aims to help language learner manage two languages. It may help the first language learner how to understand the second language. This approach can expand researcher’s linguistic concerns and improve language learning’s insights. Specially, this approach performs strategies of learning through language acquisitions between the first language and the second language. Most usefully, this approach can encourage language teachers and learners are aware of comparison among languages before they seem to have similar word-formation and language concepts as well.

Therefore, those theoretical frameworks will be concerned in this current study for comparing the similarity of Chinese and English.

Conceptual framework

The writer himself points out his own conceptual framework in this present study shown blow.

Word-Formation

Y.P.

R.A.

C.L.A

Similarity

C1 & D & C2

Notes: Y.P.=Yule’s Processes                                 R.A.=Ren’s Approach

            C.L.A.=Cross Linguistic Approach             C1=Compounding

            D.=Derivation                                              C2=Conversion

As shown in the diagram, word-formation may be analyzed and compared through Yule’s Processes, Ren’s Approach, and the concerns of Cross Linguistic Approach. Through this study of word-formation between Chinese and English, similarity will be found among compounding, derivation and conversion.

Methodology

Research Design

 The quantitative analysis and descriptive analysis will be used in this current study.

Materials

This current study of word-formation was found out The Great Learning text in Chinese and English through on-line survey. The original Chinese text found additionally had English translation. The researcher further examined that the on-line text is the same in the print text from Zhong Hua Shu Ju (China Book Publishing). Except this original Confucius’ text, the writer also found another source about the Chinese lexical studies provided by Ching (2000). Those two materials would be used in this current study as supportive examples.

Description of text

The Great Learning was written by Confucius about 500 B.C. Confucius is well-known as an educator, a politician and a philosopher. His philosophical insights have been affecting Chinese people since then and his educational ideas have also been used in teaching. The Great Learning is the summary of Confucius’s teaching and learning.

The Great Learning was divided into two parts which are Jing (1 chapter) and Zhuan (10 chapter), totally 11 chapters (Wang, 2007, pp.1-38). The chapter Jing points out that leaning is to improve self-training and to have world knowledge. Jing additionally indicates that learners should firstly empower self-training, and then possibly take care of other members in the society. The Zhuan aims to explain the meaning of Jing and to achieve the goal of Jing.

In educational dimension, The Great Learning can also be implied to analyze morphological patters for it has morphological patterns given. Inside the text, The Great Learning shows many words which can imply to compare with English patterns as well. For example, the text has some words as “不 (bu, meaning no), 之 (zhi, meaning of)”which can imply to be compatible with English prefix and suffix as well.

             Learning language is further not only to learn knowledge, but more importantly to also improve learners’ self-training and world’s knowledge. If learners can have abundant knowledge and good virtue, they would contribute themselves to other people and to society better. The Great Learning is, therefore, chosen to be used in this current study.

Procedures & Text’s Analysis

The Great Learning was firstly found through on-line survey and examined with the original print text. After discovering this English translation, the researcher has decided to use this text for comparing word-formation between English and Chinese. In addition, the writer himself considers that Chinese language seems to be much concerns of word-formation for Chinese seems to be widely learned in the world today. Through those concerns, the writer himself divides the procedures of analysis into three parts. The first part is to compare compounding process using of English and Chinese. In this part, the writer will show five comparisons including noun plus noun form; verb plus noun; subject plus predicate; verb plus adverb; and modifier plus stem. The second part is to compare affixes using of English and Chinese, including prefixes and suffixes. The last part is to consider the conversion both in English and Chinese.

Results and Discussion

The comparison of word-formation between Chinese and English is divided into three parts to analyze their similarity and to imply their morphological patters in language studies.

The first part is to compare compounding in English and Chinese. The compounding indicates that two originally independent words into one (Ching, 2000, p. 356).  The examples are mostly from The Great Learning text.

Table 1

Compounds of Chinese and English

   Noun+noun            天子 Tian + Son= Tianzi              Date +Date=Double

                                    (Kingdom +son)= Emperor         Air +Line= Airline

                                    天命 Tian +Ming=Tianming          

                                     (Kingdom +Life)=Innate /Lucky

                                   日日Ri +Ri= Riri=Shuang

                                      (Date +Date)= Double  

Verb + noun               能安 Neng +An=Nengan              Hold +House=Household

                                    (Enable +Peace)=Quiet

                                    近道Jing +Dao=Jingdao            Awe+Inspriring=Awe-inspiring

                                    (Approach +Virtue)=Perfect

                                   治国 Zhi +Guo =Zhiguo                Play +Boy= Playboy

                                    (Administrate +Country)=Manager

Subject +predicate     自明 Zi+Ming=Ziming                      Foot+Note=Footnote

                                    (Self+Understanding)=Self-understanding

 

                                    自欺Zi+Qi=Ziqi                          Self+Deception=Self-deception

                                    (Self+Cheat)=Self-cheating          Head+Ache=Headache

                                    子曰Zi+Yue=Ziyue                     Earth+Quake=Earthquake

                                    (Confucius+Talk)=Self- talk

Verb + adverb        说明shuo+ming=shuoming               Take+ Over=Take over

                               (say clearly=explain)                            Work+Hard=Hardworking

                                初学Chu +Xue=Chuxue                   Watch+Over= Watch over

                                (Learn +Primarily)=Beginner

                                释本  Shi +Beng=Shibeng                  Order +Well=Well-ordered                          

Adjective +noun      大学Da+Xue=Daxue      

                                                                      Extended+Knowledge=Extended- Knowledge

                                (Great +Learning)=Enough

                                 明德 Ming+ De=Mingde

  Note: Some examples of Noun+Noun; Subject +Predicate; given by the writer.

         Table 1 shows the possible comparison compounded word forms between Chinese and English. As can be seen, Chinese language seems to have similar word-formation to English. Although it is very difficulty to find the same words compatible with English word-forms, there at least have possibility to find out similar patters to English as well. This discovery assumes that language learners can obtain help from their native language. It further assumes that language learners might have possibility learn a new language faster if they can compare a foreign language with their native language. At least, language learners can get learning strategy of studying language. In addition, Word-formation in “Noun+Noun” and “Subject +Predicate” pairs seem to easily find out in Chinese through Texts. This phenomenon assumes that Chinese may have abundant words compatible with English words. Therefore, Chinese and English have the same word-formation in compounding forms.

Table 2

Comparison derivation of word-formation in Chinese and English

Category                                                           Derivation

___________                     __________________________________________

 

    Un-  /Dis                           不 Bu, 毋Wu, 无Wu, 非Fei,        Unperturbedness

                                                  没Mei, 未Wei                                Dislike

                                                 (None, No )                                        Disorder

    Bene-                                  好Hao                                              Benefits /Benevolence

    Over-                            盖Gai, 远 Yuan                               Overcharging/Overlook  

    -ate                               是Shi, 变Bian, 成 Chen

                                             (Becoming)                                             Illustrate        

-able                                  能Neng                                        Knowledgeable

                                           (Capable)

 

Pre-                                   先Xian, 前Qian                             Precede/ Preside

                                         (Before)

After-                              后Hou                                             Afterwards

                                        (After)    

Re-                                 又 You, 亦Yi, 也 Ye 而Er                   Renew

                                      (Again)

Soli-                               独Du, 唯Wei ,惟Wei                   Solidarity

Out-                              外Wai                                           Outlook

                                     (Out)

Inter-                           内Nei                                            Interval

                                     (Inner/ Inter)   

________________________________________________________________________                                                                                                                                                     

Notes: for further studies, please see, Ching(2000), pp.56-89.

               Table 2 shows the derivation word-formation both in Chinese and English. As can be seen, Chinese language seems to have affixes similar to English language. Some affixes might be equal; other might have no possibility to find the same words as well. This discovery indicates each of language has affixes, either the same with other languages or not. At least, they have the same concept of forming words. In addition, some Chinese affixes might have function of prefix and suffix as well; however, English language seems to no much opportunity as Chinese. These differences assume that Chinese may have more features than English. Therefore, this finding might assume that learning Chinese seems more difficulty than learning English for English speakers. On the other hand, Chinese English learners find out that they have much difficulty of learning English as well for they seem to have different language forms. Furthermore, Chinese can use many words expressing the meaning “Not” in English. In English, there generally have two prefixes as “Un- & Dis-” provided. This comparison may assume that Chinese have abundant words to describe the same meaning and seems that English is simpler than Chinese. Whether simple or complex in affixes between English and Chinese, there have the same concepts of formulating words in the same ways shown in the table above.  Finally, these findings through comparison affixes between Chinese and English assume that language learners can use the same strategy expanding their words through their native language as well.

Table 3

Category                               Chinese                                      English

                                         _____________                     ___________________

 

       Noun to verb                           校Xiao, 教 Jiao                      Date                Date    

                                                      (School)  (Teaching)                 Care                Care

                                                                                                        Order               Order    

                                                      食Shi,  吃食Chishi                  Die                  Die                                                      

       Adjective to verb                   明Ming, 照明Zhaoming           Wrong          Wrong

                                                    (Lightful)    (Enlighten)

 

      Verb to noun                          知Zhi, 智 Zhi                           Watch             Watch

 

  Table 3 shows conversions of word-formation between Chinese and English. As can be seen, Chinese language has the function of conversion as the same function of English. This discovery assumes that Chinese-English learners may use this strategy of conversion for them to learn English as the same concept of using this strategy for English-Chinese learners. Although each language can change word types from one type to another, this changing might apply new insights for learning a new language and compare their different formation in words’ formulation. Further, the same concerns of language’s conversion can help language learners efficiently compare and improve their vocabulary as well.

As can also be seen, Chinese have different kinds of characters of expressing different word meaning and types; English, however, have the same words. This situation assumes that Chinese seems simpler than English for each word shows the single meaning, yet, English uses the same word provide different word-categories. These differences assume that distinguishing word-categories should depend on the contextual meaning in the texts. Therefore, Chinese language has conversions as English does, thus suggesting language learners to compare word-formation between their native language and their foreign language.  If language learners compare their differences among native language and other foreign language, they can efficiently understand the word meaning and word structure of formation.

Conclusion

As discussed above, word-formation between Chinese and English has many similarities. There have the same concepts of combining words, derivation and conversion as well. These discoveries assume that either monolingual or bilingual has similarity of word-formation. Although each language has its own characteristics, it can compare with each other for empowering language learning. Further concern is that each language use different terms to express its language, it still has similar concepts of forming language. Therefore, the writer suggests language learners try to compare with their own native language as much as they can, thereby improving their speed of language learning.

Pedagogical implication for language teaching

By the discussions of word-formation between Chinese and English above, it has found some similarities. These discoveries can imply language teaching. In fact, most language learners are adults’ learners. They have learned their native language before learning a new language. Therefore, this present study can help language teachers pay attention to some rules of the English and Chinese language in their English teaching. If teacher can use morphological rules well in English and Chinese, the writer himself assumes that they can help their students efficiently master a new language well. Finally, the current writer seems to suggest Chinese-English language teacher doing more bilingual comparison and contrast during their teaching.

 

 

References

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Ching, Y. (2000). The Chinese lexicon. NY: Routledge.

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Koda, K.(2005). Insights into second language: A cross-linguistic approach. Cambrideg:

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Plag, I. (2003). Word-formation in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Yule, G. (2006). The study of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wang, A. (1997). A comparison of word-formation between English and Chinese.

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Wang, X. (2007). Da xue & Zhong yong (The Great Learning). Beijing, China: Zhong

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