英国文学名词解释大全

Epic （appeared in the the Anglo-Saxon Period ）

It is a narrative of heroic action, often with a principal hero, usually mythical in its content, grand in its style, offering inspiration and ennoblement within a particular culture or national tradition.

A long narrative poem telling about the deeds of great hero and reflecting the values of the society from which it originated.

Epic is an extended narrative poem in elevated or dignified language, like Homer’s Iliad & Odyssey. It usually celebrates the feats of one or more legendary or traditional heroes. The action is simple, but full of magnificence.

Today, some long narrative works, like novels that reveal an age & its people, are also called epic.

E.g.  Beowulf （  the  pagan，secular( poetry）  Iliad ，Odyssey Paradise Lost ，The Divine Comedy

Romance (Anglo-Norman  feudal England)

Romance is any imaginative literature that is set in an idealized world and that deals with heroic adventures and battles between good characters and villains or monsters.

Originally, the term referred to a medieval  tale dealing with the love and adventures of kings, queens, knights, and ladies, and including supernatural happenings.

Form: long composition, in verse, in prose

Content: description of life and adventures of a noble hero

Character: a knight, a man of noble birth, skilled in the use of weapons; often described as riding forth to seek adventures, taking part in tournaments, or fighting for his lord in battles; devoted to the church and the king

Romance lacks general resemblance to truth or reality.

It exaggerates the vices of human nature and idealizes the virtues.

It contains perilous (dangerous) adventures more or less remote from ordinary life.

It lays emphasis on supreme devotion to a fair lady.

①The Romance Cycles/Groups/Divisions

Three Groups

matters of Britain      Adventures of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table

matters of France      Emperor Charlemagne and his peers

matters of Rome       Alexander the Great and the attacks of Troy

Le Morte D’Arthur

②Class Nature  of the Romance

Loyalty to king and lord was the theme of the romances, as loyalty was the corner-stone（the most important part）of feudal morality.

The romances were composed not for the common but for the noble, of the noble, and by the poets patronized（supported  by the noble.

3.  Alliteration: a repeated initial consonant to successive words.

 e.g. 1.To his kin the kindest, keenest for praise.                                                                      2.Sing a song of southern singer

4.  Understatement（for  ironical  humor）

not troublesome: very welcome

need not praise: a right to condemn

5.  Chronicle（a monument of Old English prose）

6.  Ballads （The most important department of English folk literature ）

①Definition:

    A ballad is a narrative poem that tells a story, and is usually meant to be sung or recited in musical form.

An important stream of the Medieval folk literature

②Features of English Ballads

1. The ballads are in various English and Scottish dialects.

2. They were created collectively and revised when handed down from mouth to mouth.

3. They are mainly the literature of the peasants, and give an outlook of the English common people in feudal society.

③Stylistic Features of the Ballads

1. Composed in couplets  or in quatrains known as the ballad stanza , rhyming abab or abcb, with the first and third lines carrying 4 accented syllables  and the second and fourth carrying 3.

2. Simple, plain language or dialect of the common people with colloquial , vivid and, sometimes, idiomatic  expressions

3. Telling a good story with a vivid presentation around the central plot.

4. Using a high proportion of dialogue with a romantic or tragic dimension to achieve dramatic effect.

④Subjects of English Ballads

1. struggle of young lovers

2. conflict between love and wealth

3. cruelty of jealousy

4. criticism of the civil war

5. matters of class struggle

7.  Heroic couplet （introduced by Geoffrey Chaucer）

Definition: the rhymed couplet of iambic pentameter; a verse form in epic poetry, with lines of ten syllables and five stresses, in rhyming pairs.

8. couplet: Two consecutive lines of poetry that rhyme.A heroic couplet is an iambic pentameter couplet. During the Restoration period and the 18th C. it was a popular verse form.

9. iambic pentameter: A poetic line consisting of five Verse feet (penta- is from a Greek word meaning “five”), with each foot an iamb-- that is, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable.

10.  Rhyme: the repetition  of sounds in two or more words or phrases that appear close to each other in a poem. E .g .  river/shiver, song/long

11.  meter（Prosody）: A generally regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry.

The meters with two-syllable feet are:

Iambic (x /): That time of year thou mayst in me behold

Trochaic (/ x): Tell me not in mournful numbers

Spondaic (/ /): Break, break, break/ On thy cold gray stones, O Sea!

The meters with three-syllable feet are:

anapestic (x x /): And the sound of a voice that is still

dactylic (/ x x): This is the forest primeval, the murmuring

                          pines and the hemlock

                           (a trochee replaces the final dactyl)

12.  Rhythm（Prosody ）： refers to the regular recurrence of the accent or stress in poem or song.

e.g. the rhythm of day and night, the seasonal rhythm of the year, the beat of our hearts, and the rise and fall of sea tides, etc.

basic patterns of rhythms

a) Iambic foot (iamb): an unstressed syllable followed by an stressed one as in the word “prevent” or “about”

     It’s time the children went to bed.

     We’ll learn a poem by Keats.

b) Trochaic [trəu'keiik] foot (trochee): a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one as in “football”, “never”, “happy” or “English”

    William Morris taught him English.

    Double, double, toil and trouble.

    Fire burns and cauldron bubble.

c) Anapestic foot (anapest）: two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed one as in “comprehend” or “intervene”

            I’ve been working in China for forty years.

d) Dactylic foot (dactyl): a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones as in “dangerous”, “cheerfully”, “yesterday” or “merrily”

13．Common line lengths:

number of feet per line

one foot        monometer (rare)

two feet     dimeter

three feet   trimester

four feet     tetrameter

five feet      pentameter

six feet       hexameter

seven feet       heptameter (rare)

eight feet octameter  (rare)

14．Line patterns:

Couplet: 2 lines rhyming with each other

A heroic couplet is an iambic pentameter couplet.

Tercet : 3 lines, terza rima (aba, bcb, cdc, ded)

Quatrain  : 4 lines, ballad stanza (abcb)

Octave : 8 lines, ottava rima (abab abcc)

Spenserian stanza : 9 lines  (ababbcbcc)   （The Faerie Queen）

Sonnet : 14 lines (Shakespearean: ababcdcdefefgg)

Example:

         She walks in beauty, like the night

                   of cloudless climes and starry skies;

         And all that’s best of dark and bright

                   Meet in her aspect and her eyes:

         Thus mellow’d to that tender light

                   Which heaven to gaudy day denies

1. Foot and length:   Iambic tetrameter

2. Rhyme (scheme):    ababab

15．Humanism

1) Humanism is the essence of the Renaissance. According to humanists, human beings were glorious creatures capable of individual development in the direction of perfection and the world can be questioned, explored and enjoyed.

2) By emphasizing the dignity of human beings and the importance of the present life, in contrast to the medieval emphasis on God and contempt for the things of this world, they voiced their beliefs that man did not only have the right to pursue happiness of this life, but had the ability to perfect himself and to perform wanders.  

16. Drama

1. Definition

Drama is “a composition in prose or verse, adapted to be acted upon a stage, in which a story is related by means of dialogue and action, and is represented with accompanying gesture, costume, and scenery, as in real life.”

2. The Development of Drama

1. Religious Period

1) Mystery plays presented stories from the Old and New Testament of the Bible.

Creation of the World, the Fall, the Great Flood, Redemption, Final Judgment, etc.

The birth of the Christ—child symbolized hope in the darkness of winter; Christ’s resurrection accorded with the earth’s renewal in spring, and the promise of harvest at midsummer.

        2) Miracle plays

Dramatizing the lives and miracles of saints, or divine intervention  in human affairs, that is, stories from the lives of saints.

Often focused on blessed virgin Mary

3) Morality plays

Presenting stories containing abstract virtues and vices as characters.

They were plays which had a moral message: Good and Evil fight for domination of the human soul.

Everyman, the best example, is the story of a character representing mankind.

      2. Artistic Period

              The first Comedy, Ralph Roister Doister written by the schoolmaster, Nicholas Udall between 1550 and 1553

The first English tragedy, Gorboduc written in 1561 by Thomas Sackville and Thomas Norton

3. Elements of drama

     1. Plot

            The structure of a play’s action, the order of the incidents, their arrangement and form.

2. Character: the vital center of a play

            How they look, what they say and in what manners they say; what they do and how their actions reveal who they are and what they represent

            The human qualities are the most engaging feature.

     3. Dialogue

            Drama is described as “persons moving about on stage using words.”

            Major functions of Dialogue: to advance the plot, to establish setting, and to reveal character.

4. Staging

            Things like positions of actors, nonverbal gestures and movements, scenic background, props and costumes, lighting and sound effects

5. Theme: the central idea of the play.

4. Dramatic Terms

   1. Script: the written work from which a drama isproduced. It contains stage directions and

                        Dialogue

2. Stage Directions notes provided by the playwright to describe how something should be presented or performed on stage

3. Monologue: a long speech given by an actor

4. Soliloquy: a speech given by a character who is alone (or thinks he is alone) on stage

5. Aside: a statement intended to be heard by the audience or by a single other character but not by all the other characters on stage

6. Act: a major division of a drama

7. Scene: a division of an act. A scene typically begins with the entrance of one or more characters and ends with the exit of one or more characters.

17. Comedy（Drama form）

A play written chiefly to amuse its audience by appealing to a sense of superiority over the characters depicted. A comedy will normally be closer to everyday life than a tragedy, and will explore common human failings rather than tragedy’s disastrous crimes. Its ending will usually be happy for the leading characters.

E.g. Romantic Comedies（the overcoming the obstacle of love）: As You Like It, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, The Twelfth Night, & The Merchant of Venice

18. Tragedy（Drama form）

A serious play or novel representing the disastrous downfall of a central character, the protagonist. According to Aristotle, the purpose is to achieve a catharsis through incidents arousing pity and terror. The tragic effect usually depends on our awareness of admirable qualities in he protagonist, which are wasted terribly in the fated disaster.

E.g. Great Tragedies explores the faults/weaknesses of humans）: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear& Macbeth

19. dramatic Romance (tragi-comedy)（Drama form）:

Romances focus on the separation and reunion of families rather than love and marriage.

Endings were characterized by homecoming, recognition, reconciliation, and forgiveness.

The romances are set in mythical worlds where supernatural and magic and unlikely coincidences are commonplace.

E.g. Pericles, Cymbeline, The Winter’s Tale, The Tempest

20. Monologue An extended speech uttered by one speaker, either to others or alone. Significant varieties include the dramatic monologue (a kind of poem in which the speaker is imagined to be addressing a silent audience), and the soliloquy (in which the speaker is supposed to be “overheard” while alone).

21. Soliloquy

A dramatic speech delivered by one character speaking aloud while under the impression of being alone. The soliloquist thus reveals his or her inner thoughts and feelings to the audience, either in supposed self-communion or in a consciously direct address. It is also known as interior monologue.

22. The basic plot of the play ( Freytag’s pyramid )

    1. Exposition : provides the background information needed to properly understand the story, such as the protagonist, the antagonist, the basic conflict, and the setting.

    2. Rising action: during rising action, the basic internal conflict is complicated by the introduction of related secondary conflicts, including various obstacles that frustrate the protagonist's attempt to reach his goal.

    3. Climax: the turning point, which marks a change, for the better or the worse, in the protagonist’s affairs. If the story is a comedy, things will have gone badly for the protagonist up to this point; now, the tide, so to speak, will turn, and things will begin to go well for him or her. If the story is a tragedy, the opposite state of affairs will ensue, with things going from good to bad for the protagonist.

4. Falling action: during the falling action, or resolution, which is the moment of reversal（反向，倒转，转变，颠倒） after the climax, the conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist unravels, with the protagonist winning or losing against the antagonist. The falling action might contain a moment of final suspense, during which the final outcome of the conflict is in doubt.

    5. Dénouement, resolution, or catastrophe: comprises events between the falling action and the actual end of the drama or narrative and thus serves as the conclusion of the story. Conflicts are resolved, creating normality for the characters and a sense of catharsis, or release of tension and anxiety, for the reader.

The comedy ends with a dénouement (a conclusion) in which the protagonist is better off than at the story's outset. The tragedy ends with a catastrophe in which the protagonist is worse off than at the beginning of the narrative.

In Shakespeare's tragedies, the dénouement is usually the death of one or more characters.   

23. Dramatic irony

    Dramatic irony: the words or acts of a character may carry a meaning unperceived by the character but under-stood by the audience.

      Examples of dramatic irony in Romeo and Juliet

Before Romeo drinks the poison, he observes that Juliet looks as though she were alive.

 Romeo is cheerful because of a dream, but his hopes are quickly dashed by Balthasar’s news of Juliet’s death.

24. Blank Verse

Unrhymed lines of iambic pentameter. It is a very flexible English verse form which can attain rhetorical grandeur while echoing the natural rhythms of speech. It was first used by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, and soon became a popular form for narrative and dramatic poetry. Marlowe, Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth, Tennyson, Stevens and Robert Frost are fond of this form.

25. Sonnet

A sonnet is a lyric poem comprising 14 rhyming lines of equal length: iambic   pentameter in English, hendecasyllables in Italian, and alexandrines in French.

    1. The Italian/Petrarchan sonnet

          It is named after Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374), the Italian poet. The 14 lines break into an octave (or octet) of 2 quatrains, rhymed abbaabba (rhymed sometimes abbacddc or even abababab); and a sestet, usually rhymed cdecde or cdcdcd.

    2. The English/Shakespearean sonnet

         It was introduced into English poetry in the early 16th century by Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542). It consists of 3 quatrains and a final couplet, rhyming abab cdcd efef gg.

An important variant is the Spenserian sonnet,which links the 3 quatrains by rhyme, rhyming abab bcbc cdcd ee.

26. Allegory

A story with a double meaning: a primary or surface meaning, and a secondary or under-the-surface meaning

A story that can be read, understood and interpreted at two levels

 Two levels of allegory

One level examines the moral, philosophical and religious values and is represented by the Red Cross Knight, who stands for all Christians.

The second level is the particular, which focuses on the political, social, and religious conflicts in the then English society.

27. Types of poetry

1)  Narrative poetry

epic, romance, and ballad

The stress is on action,

e.g. to tell stories and describe actions;

2)  Lyric poetry

Elegies , odes, sonnets, epigraphs , etc.

To combine speech and song to express feelings in varying degrees of verbal（口头的，言语的） music.

28. essay

As a form of literature, the essay is a composition of moderate length, usually in prose, which deals in an easy way with the external conditions of a subject, and, in strictness, with that subject, only as it affects the writer.

1. Purpose:

     Essays is intended for the ambitious Elizabethan and Jacobean youth of upper class, to tell them how to be efficient and make their way in public life.

Writing style:  four prominent qualities:

                 preciseness,     directness,

                 tenseness,        forcefulness

3.  Bacon’s essays

          Bacon offers his views on a whole smorgasbord of topics ranging from Truth, Death, Adversity, Marriage & the Single Life, Love, Boldness, Superstition, Friendship, Health, Ambition, Youth, Beauty to Anger & Fame.

     4. Features of Bacon’s essays

              Bacon’s essays are the first example of that genre in English literature and have been recognized as an important landmark in the development of English prose. The essays are famous for the pithy aphoristic style, which he had defended in principle in The Advancement of Learning as proper for the expression of tentative opinions.

 E.g. Essays  “Of Studies”  “Of Wisdom”  “Of Death”  “Of Friendship”  “Of Travel”, etc.

29. Metaphysical Poets

METAPHYSICAL POETS refer to a school of poets at the beginning of the 17th century England who wrote under the influence of John Donne. The works of the Metaphysical poets are characterized, generally speaking, by mysticism in content and fantasticality in form.

The most eminent poets are John Donne, George Herbert & Andrew Marwell.

30. Metaphysical Poetry

        Metaphysical poetry is concerned with the whole experience of man, especially about love, romantic and sensual; about man's relationship with God,  and about pleasure, learning and art.

        Metaphysical poems are lyric poems of brief but intense meditations, characterized by the striking use of wit, irony and wordplay. Beneath the formal structure (of rhyme, metre and stanza) is the underlying structure of the poem’s argument. In “To His Coy Mistress,” the explicit argument (Marvell's request that the coy lady yield to his passion) is a stalking horse for the more serious argument about the transitoriness of pleasure.

 

Rise & Fall of Metaphysical Poetry

Metaphysical poetry was rarely read in the 17th, 18th and early 19th century.

In the late 19th century and early 20th century, there was a renewed interest in metaphysical poetry.

The modernist poets T.S. Eliot, John Ransom and Allen Tate claimed their influence by John Donne. So John Donne became a cult figure in the early 20th century English-speaking countries.

31. Conceit

A conceit is a figure of speech which makes an unusual and sometimes elaborately sustained comparison between two dissimilar things.

Metaphysical conceit

     This type of conceit draws upon a wide range of knowledge, and its comparisons are elaborately rationalized.

    For instance, Donne’s “The Flea” compares a flea bite to the act of love; and in “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” separated lovers are likened to the legs of a compass, the leg drawing the circle eventually returning home to "the fixed foot."

32. Cavalier Poets

Cavalier poets are, more often than not, knights and squires, who side with the king against the parliament and the puritans in the English revolution. They mostly deal in short songs on the flitting joys of the day, but underneath their lightheartedness lies some foreboding of impending doom.

1. Writing on the courtly themes of loyalty, love, and beauty, the cavalier poets produced finely finished verses.

2. The common factor that binds the cavaliers together is their use of direct and colloquial language expressive of a highly individual personality, and their enjoyment of the casual, the amateur, the affectionate poem written by the way.

3. They are “cavalier” in the sense, not only of being Royalists, but in the sense that they distrust the over-earnest, the too intense.

4. The leading cavalier poets were Robert Herrick, Richard Lovelace, Sir John Suckling, and Thomas Carew. Most were admirers of Ben Jonson.

33. neoclassicism

It found its artistic models in the classical literature of the ancient Greek and Roman writers like Homer, Virgil, Horace, Ovid.

A partial reaction against the fires of passion blazed in the late Renaissance, especially in the Metaphysical poetry.

--- Prose should be precise, direct, smooth andflexible.

--- Poetry should be lyrical, epical, didactic, satiric or dramatic, and each class should be guided by its own principles.

--- Neo-classical writers are: John Dryden, Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Henry Fielding, Samuel Johnson, Oliver Goldsmith, Edward Gibbon, etc.

34. Bourgeoisie[,bʊəʒwɑ:'zi:] (the 18th Century   Age of Bourgeoisie

35. Enlightenment Movement

Under the influence of scientific discoveries (Newton) and flourishing of philosophies, French enlightenment started.

      Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire, Montesquieu， Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau believed that the world was an object of study and that people could understand and control the world by means of reason and empirical research.

an intellectual movement beginning in France and then spread throughout Europe

a continuation of Renaissance in belief in the possibility of human perfection through education

the guiding principle or slogan is Ration/Reason, natural right and equality (American Independence War in 1776; French Revolution in 1789)

Ration became standard for measurement of everything.

In religion, it was against superstition, intolerance, and dogmatism; in politics, it was against tyranny; and in society, it was against prejudice, ignorance, inequality, and any obstacles to the realization of an individual’s full intellectual and physical well-being. At the same time, they advocated universal education. In their opinion, human beings were limited, dualistic, imperfect, and yet capable of rationality and perfection through education.

The great enlighteners:

Alexander Pope,

Joseph Addison,

Jonathan Swift, and

Samuel Johnson

36. Prose

1) Biography: James Boswell’s Life of Samuel Johnson

2) Journalism/Periodicals:  Steels and Addison’s literary journals

3) Realist novel: bourgeois in essence

      --- subject matter,

      --- readership,

      --- didactic purpose,

      --- form (prose, comic epic);

37. Gothic novel (from mid-18th century)

--- Devoted to tales of horror and the darker

            supernatural forces

--- Derives its name from similarities to

            Medieval Gothic architecture

--- Gothic Horror: A thriller designed not only to

      terrify or frighten the audience, but to convey a

      sense of moral failure or spiritual darkness.

--- The Gothic in England begins with The Castle of Otranto in 1760, by Horace Walpole, which emphasized the supernatural mixed with the grotesque in a medieval setting.

--- Anne Radcliffe in Mysteries of Udolpho perfected the sentimental gothic in the 1790s.

--- Frankenstein(1817) by Mary Shelley   

---influenced the later generations: Coleridge, Keats, Dickens, Bronte sisters, etc.

38. Sentimentality literature

--- It was a partial reaction against that cold, logic rationalism which dominated people’s life since the last decades of the 17th century.

   --- A ready sympathy and an inward pain for the misery of others became part of accepted social morality and ethics.

   --- started by Samuel Richardson’s Pamela

     and Clarissa

--- represented in novel form by Laurence Sterne’s A

     Sentimental Journey through France and

     Italy (1768)

--- represented in poetry by “The Graveyard School”:

     Thomas Gray,  Edward Young

--- emphasizing the emotion/heart instead of ration

---gradually merged into Romanticism   

39. Satire: A literary manner which blends humor with criticism for the purpose of instruction or the improvement of humanity.

The necessary ingredients

   --- Humor

   --- Criticism, either general criticism of humanity or human

        nature or specific criticism of an individual or group.

   --- Some kind of moral voice: simply mocking or criticism

        is not “satire.”

The best and most representative works are found in those written by Pope and Swift.

Alexander Pope

Mock epic: “The Rape of the Lock”

Literary Satire: “The Dunciad”

Jonathan Swift

“A Modest Proposal”

Gulliver’s Travels

40. The Realistic Novel

The English middle-class people were ready to cast away the aristocratic romance and to create a new and realistic literature of their own to express their ideas and serve their interests.

The whole life in its ordinary aspects of the middle class became the major source of interest in literature.

Major novelists: Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, Henry Fielding, Laurence Sterne, Oliver Goldsmith, Tobias George Smollett…

41. Elements of Fiction

1. Theme: the central idea or statement about life that unifies and controls the total work

                     Identifying the theme

To avoid confusing a work’s theme with its subject or situation.

The statement of theme does the work full justice.

It is fully and completely supported by the work’s other elements.

The title of the work often suggests a particular focus or emphasis for the reader’s attention.

2. Plot :The action in fiction, the arrangement of events that make up a story.

•  Plots turn on a conflict, or struggle between opposing forces, i.e. how one action leads into another.

• Structure is the design or form of the action, i.e. patterns and the shape of content.

•The classic pattern: exposition, complication, crisis, falling action, and resolution

            3. Character：Characters are imaginary people that writers create.

•Concerned with being able to establish the personalities of the characters and to identify their intellectual, emotional, and moral qualities.

•Concerned with the techniques to create and develop characters.

•Concerned with whether the characters are credible and convincing.

The major, or central, character of the plot is the protagonist

The opponent, the character against whom the protagonist struggles or contends, is the antagonist .

Flat characters are those who embody or represent a single characteristic, trait, or idea, or at most a

        very limited number of such qualities. (type characters, one-dimensional characters)

Round characters are just the opposite. They embody a number of qualities and traits, and are

       complex multi-dimensional characters of considerable intellectual and emotional depth.

        Most importantly, they have the capacity to grow and change.

4. Setting

Setting is both the physical locale that frames the action and

the time of day or year, the climatic conditions, and the

historical period during which the action takes place.

   The functions of setting:    

Setting as a background for action.

Setting as antagonist

Setting as means of creating appropriate atmosphere.

Setting as a means of revealing character.

Setting as a means of reinforcing theme.

5. Point of view

The method of narration that determines the position, or angle of vision from which the story is told.

Commonly used points of view

Third-person point of view omniscient

Third-person point of view limited

First-person point of view

6. Language and style

    Style consists of diction (the individual words an

author chooses) and syntax (the arrangement of those

words) , as well as such writing devices as rhythm

and sound, allusion, ambiguity, irony, paradox, and

figurative language.

    Each writer’s style is unique. It constitutes his

“signature” in a way that sets his work apart.

42. Methods of Characterization

Characterization through the use of names.

Characterization through appearance.

Characterization by the author.

Characterization through dialogue.

Characterization through action.

43. Diction: the type and quality of the individual words that comprise an author’s basic vocabulary.

The denotative meaning of words,

The connotative meaning;

The degree of concreteness or abstractness;

The degree of allusiveness;

the parts of speech they represent;

The length and construction;

The level of usage they reflect (standard or nonstandard; formal, informal, or colloquial);

The imagery they contain;

The figurative devices (simile, metaphor, personification, etc) they embody;

44. Syntax

The ways the author arranges words into phrases, clauses, and finally whole sentences to achieve particular effects.

The length—whether they are short, spare, and

                       economical or long and involved;

The form—whether they are simple, compound, or

                     complex;

45. Construction of sentence

Loose sentences that follow the normal subject-verb-object pattern, stating their main idea near the beginning in the form of an independent clause,

Periodic sentences that deliberately withhold or suspend the completion of the main idea until the end of the sentence,

Balanced sentences in which two similar or antithetical ideas are balanced.

46. Historical novel

A novel where fictional characters take part in actual historical events and interact with real people from the past.

Examples:

Sir Walter Scott: Ivanhoe, Waverly

James Fennimore Cooper:

                   The Last of the Mohicans

47. Romanticism

politically: a reaction against industrial revolution and the social system

literarily: a reaction against Neo-classicism; concerned with imagination and personal feeling instead of the power of ration / reason

philosophically: It stresses individualism instead of  social order.

①Artistic feature

      verse form: lyrics, odes（颂，赋）, sonnets, ballads

diction: fresh, simple, commonly used colloquial language

themes: the beauty and mysticism of nature; simple, common rural life; facts and ideas of revolution

②Definition

Romanticism: a movement in art and literature in the 18th and 19th centuries in revolt against Neoclassicism of the previous centuries.

Friedrich Schlegel defined it as “literature depicting emotional matter in an imaginative form.”

Victor Hugo’s phrase "liberalism in literature" is also apt.

③Characteristics

Imagination, emotion, and freedom are the focal points of romanticism. Any list of its particular characteristics includes subjectivity and an emphasis on individualism; spontaneity; freedom from rules; solitary life rather than social life; beliefs that imagination is superior to reason and devotion to beauty; love of and worship of nature; and fascination with the past, especially the myths and mysticism of the middle ages.

  ④English romantic poets:

     William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats

American romantic poets:

     Ralph W. Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allen Poe, Henry D. Thoreau, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman

  ⑤Romantic Literature

         a negative attitude toward the existing conditions of political, economic, and social life under the firm rule of the bourgeoisie, though such an attitude came from writers of quite different class stands:

          --- some speaking for the feudal aristocracy;

            --- some for the patriarchal peasantry;

            --- some for the new industrial proletariat.

Lakers/ Lake Poets (The Passive Romantic Poets): Wordsworth,  Coleridge, Southey

–criticized industrial capitalism by advocating the return to the patriarchal society of the past

Active Romantic Poets: Byron, Shelley, Keats

--attacked the tyranny and exploitation of both feudalism and capitalism and called on the oppressed people to rise against their earthly tyrants

The conflict between the two camps was not simply one of personal hatred, but in a way stood for the broad social struggle between the landed aristocracy and the oppressed multitude of the English people.

48. Differences between the 18th & the 19th century; between Neoclassicism & Romanticism:

reason vs passion

reason vs imagination         

commercial vs natural

industrial vs pastoral

present vs past 

society vs individual

order and stability vs freedom           

decorative expression vs simple and  spontaneous expression

49. Lakers/Lake Poets:

(Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey) radical youth;  conservative old  age

--had radical inclinations in their youth but later turned conservative and received favors from the great.

–criticized industrial capitalism  by advocating the return to the patriarchal society of the past

--attacked by Byron