PART ONE

        ANGLO-SAXON & MEDIEVAL LITERATURE

 

[内容提要] 中古文学包括盎格鲁-萨克逊文学和中世纪文学两部分。萨克逊文学发生在原始社会，主要文学样式为诗歌（口头为主），分宗教诗歌和非宗教诗歌两种，非宗教诗歌的代表作《贝奥武夫》被称作英格兰民族史诗。中世纪文学的巅峰之作系“英国诗歌之父”乔叟的《坎特伯雷故事集》，在此之前还有一种类似于当代武侠小说的骑士文学。

[学习要点] 《贝奥武夫》的社会意义及文体风格；骑士文学的界定及其特点；骑士文学的主要题材；乔叟创作经历；乔叟对英国诗歌的贡献。

ANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE

1. Anglo-Saxon Conquest

In the ancient times, there were three tribes called Angles, Saxons and Jutes in the northern Europe. In the 5^th century, they conquered Britain and settled down there. Angles settled in the east midland and built the kingdom of East Angles. Saxons took the southern part of the island and set up some small kingdoms as Wessex, Essex, and Sussex. Jutes occupied the southeastern corner of the island. Several kingdoms arose in Britain. By the 7^th century, these small kingdoms were combined into a united kingdom called England.

This historical period is known as the Anglo-Saxon period. The language spoken by the people in this period is called Old English.

2. Anglo-Saxon literature

With the Anglo-Saxon settlement in Britain, English literature came into being. Anglo-Saxon literature is almost exclusively verse literature in oral form. It was passed down from generation to generation by word of mouth. Its authors are usually unknown. It was written down several centuries later.

There are two kinds of English poetry in Anglo-Saxon period: pagan poetry and religious poetry. Pagan poetry is represented by Beowulf and religious poetry is represented by works of Caedmon and Cynewulf.

3. Beowulf：National epic of the English people

3.1 The story

Beowulf is the oldest poem in the English language. It is the most important specimen of Anglo-Saxon literature, and also the oldest surviving epic in the English language. It consists of more than 3000 lines. It had been passed from mouth to mouth for hundreds of years before it was written down in the 10^th century or at the end of ninth century. The main stories are based on the folk legends of the primitive northern tribes.

Hrothgar, king of the Danes, has built near the sea a mead-hall called Heorot. It is the most splendid hall in the world. Every night the king and his thanes gather there to feast and listen to the songs of the gleemen. But then misfortune befalls them. One night, after they have gone to sleep, a frightful monster called Grendel comes, breaking into the hall, and killing thirty of the sleeping warriors, and then carrying the bodies to devour them in his lair under the sea. The appalling visit speedily repeats, and fear and death reign in the great hall. The warriors fight at first, but flee when they find that no weapon can harm the monster. The splendid mead-hall is left deserted and silent. For twelve winters Grendel’s horrible raids continue, and joy is changed to mourning among the Danes.

Beowulf is the nephew of Hygelac, king of the Geats, who lived in Juteland, Denmark. When he hears that Hrothgar is in great trouble, he crosses the sea with 14 soldiers to rid Hrothgar of the monster. After they get there, they are given a feast of welcome, and then they lie down in the hall for the night. At midnight, Grendel comes and kills one of Beowulf’s thanes (lords). Beowulf has a hand-to-hand fight with him. Finally he wrenches off one of the monster’s arms. Then the monster flees to his den and dies.

The next night, Grendel’s mother descends upon the hall to avenge her son. She carries away the king’s dearest friend. In the morning, Beowulf pursues her into her liar and slays her with a sword wrought by the giants. When he finds the corpse of Grendel, he cuts off his head and brings it back in triumph. The Danes award him many treasures, and Beowulf returns to his uncle.

Later on, Beowulf becomes king of the Geats and reigns over his people for 50 years. Then a fire-spewing dragon begins to devastate the land of his kingdom, because somebody has stolen a cup from the immense gold, which the dragon has guarded for 30 years. Therefore the angry dragon determines to punish the people of the kingdom. With 11 chosen thanes the aged king goes to the dragon’s barrow to fight with it. As a result, the dragon is killed, but Beowulf is severely wounded during the fight. He dies a heroic death. The poem ends with the funeral of the hero.

3.2 Comments on Beowulf

1.       Beowulf is a grand hero. He is so, simply by his deeds. He is faithful to his people. He dies a heroic death for his people.

2.       It is not Christian but a pagan poem, despite the Christian flavor given to it by the monastery scribe. It is the product of an advanced pagan civilization. The whole poem presents us an all-round picture of the tribal society. The social conditions and customs can be seen in it. So the poem also has a great social significance.

3.       The use of alliteration is another notable feature. In alliterative verse, certain accented words in a line begin with the same consonant sound. The following stanza serves as a good example.

Thus made their mourning the man of Geatland

For their hero’s passing, his hearth-companions

Quoth that of all the kings of earth,

Of men he was the mildest and most beloved,

To his kin the kindest, keenest to praise.

4.       A lot of metaphors and understatements are used in the poem. For example, the sea is called the whale-road or the swan-road; the soldiers are called shield-man; the chieftains are called the treasure-keeper; human body is referred to as the bone-house; God is called wonder-wielder; monster is called soul-destroyer.

 

ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE

1. Norman Conquest

The Norman was originally sea rovers in Scandinavia. In the 10^th century, they conquered a part of northern France that had been known as Normandy. They adopted French as their language and Christianity as their religion.

In 1066 the English king Edward died. Upon his deathbed he recommended Harold, who was his wife’s brother, as his successor. Since Harold was not from a royal family, he was accepted as king only upon Edward’s recommendation. This gave rise to dispute over the crown.

The Duke of Normandy, known as William the Great in English history, was Edward’s cousin. He was a capable general and statesman. William claimed that Edward had promised the crown to him upon his death. He also claimed that Harold had promised to help him to become the king of England. He became very angry when he heard that Harold had won the crown.

In September,1066, William led his army to land in England. He defeated the English army at Hastings and became the king of England.

2. Influence of Norman Conquest upon English literature

After Norman Conquest, feudal system was established in English society. Chivalry was introduced into England. The knightly code, the romantic interest in women, tenderness and reverence to Virgin Mary were reflected in medieval literature.

With the coming of Normans, the Anglo-Saxons sank to a position of abjectness. Anglo-Saxon English was despised by the nobility. French words of warfare & chivalry, art & luxury and science & law were borrowed into English language. Three languages existed at that time. The Normans spoke French, the lower class spoke English, and the scholars and clergyman used Latin.

The literature was varied in interest and extensive in range. The Normans began to write histories or chronicles. Most of them were written in Latin or French. The prevailing form of literature in feudal England was the romance.

3. Romance in Anglo-Norman Period

3.1 Essential features of the romance

The romance was the prevailing form of literature in the Middle Ages. It was a long composition, either in verse or in prose, describing the life and adventures of a noble hero. Its essential features are:

a.       It lacks general resemblance to truth or reality

b.       It exaggerates the vices of human nature and idealizes the virtues.

c.       It contains perilous adventures more or less remote from ordinary life.

d.       It lays supreme devotion to a fair lady.

e.       The central figure of the romance is the knight, a man of noble birth skilled in the use of weapons. He is commonly described as riding forth to seek adventures, taking part in tournaments, or fighting for his lord in battles. He is devoted to the church and the king.

From the romance we can have a epitome of the Middle Ages. The romance prospered for about 3 centuries (1200-1500). It was written for the nobility. It had nothing to do with ordinary people.

3.2 Romance cycles

The romance falls into 3 cycles or categories: matters of Britain, matters of France and matters of Rome.

a.       The matters of France deal with the exploits of Charlemagne, known as Charles the Great, King of Frank and Emperor of the West Empire. The famous romance in this group is Charson de Roland.

b.       The matters of Rome deal with tales from Greek and Roman sources. Alexander the Great (356B.C.—323B.C.), king of Macedonia and conqueror of Greece, Egypt, India and Persian Empire is the major hero of this group. Besides this, Trojan War is a hot topic in this group.

c.       The matters of Britain deal with the exploits of King Arthur and his knights of Round Table. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight heads the list of Arthurian romances.

 

GEOFFREY CHAUCER (1340---1400)

1. Literary career

Chaucer lived in the 14^th century. In this century, England produced 5 major writers: Langland, Wycliff, Gower, Mandeville and Chaucer. Chaucer was the greatest writer in this century and the 14^th century is usually known as Age of Chaucer.

Chaucer is acclaimed as “father of English poetry”. He is the first poet to be buried in Poet’s Corner in Westminster Abbey. We are indebted to him for his most vivid description of the fourteenth-century England.

Chaucer’s whole life can be divided into three periods. The first period, lasting about 30 years, is the period of French influence. His major works in this period were translations from French. The Romaunt of the Rose, the most popular poem of the Middle Ages, was translated into English by Chaucer. The second period, about 15 years, covers Chaucer’s active life as diplomat and man of affairs. In this period, Italian influence seemed stronger than French influence. Chaucer produced works adapted from Italian writers. His chief work of this period was Troilus and Criseyde. The third period, including his last 15 years, is the English period. His masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales, was produced in the third period.

2. Brief introduction to The Canterbury Tales

The Canterbury Tales total about 17000 lines---about half of Chaucer’s entire literary production. The whole poem is a collection of tales and stories strung together according to a simple plan, which shows the influence of Boccaccio’s Decameron. One spring day, the poet is in the Tabard Inn in Southwark at the south end of London Bridge .He joins the other pilgrims bound for Canterbury. The host of the inn suggests that they tell stories to kill time during the journey. All agree .The host acts as the judge. Each is to tell two stories while going and two while returning. There are 30 people in the company, which meant that there would be a lot of stories, but actually only 24 were written. The tales cover all the major types of medieval literature: romances of knights and ladies, folk tales, animal stories, stories of travel and adventure, and others. The prologue is a miniature of the English society of Chaucer’s time.

3. Chaucer’s contribution

1.       The Canterbury Tales has its social significance in several ways. It represents the spirit of the rising bourgeoisie. The ideas of humanism are shown in Chaucer’s praising of man’s energy, intellect, wit and love of life. Chaucer offers a panorama of his time. In his Canterbury Tales, people from all walks of life except the royal family and the beggars are involved.

2.       Chaucer makes English the language of literature. The language he used, known as Middle English now, is vivid and smooth.

3.       Chaucer’s contribution to English poetry is that he greatly enriched the rhyme schemes by introducing from France the rhymed stanzas of various types. Heroic couplet, or the rhymed couplet of iambic pentameter, is the form he was most at home with.

 

SELECTED READINGS

The Canterbury Tales (excerpt) by Geoffrey Chaucer

There was an Oxford Cleric too, a student,

Long given to logic, longer than was prudent;

The horse he had was leaner than a rake,

And he was not too fat, I undertake,

But had a hollow look, a sober stare;

The thread upon his overcoat was bare.

He had found no preferment in the church

And he was too unworldly to make search.

He thought far more of having by his bed

His twenty books bound in black and red,

Of Aristotle and philosophy

Than of gay music , fiddles or finery.

Though a philosopher, as I have told,

He had not found the stone for making gold.

Whatever money from his friends he took

He spent on learning or another book

And prayed for them most earnestly, returning

Thanks to them thus for paying for his learning.

His only care was study, and indeed

He never spoke a word more than was need,

Formal at that, respectful in the extreme,

Short, to the point, and lofty in his theme.

The thought of moral virtue filled his speech

And he would gladly learn, and gladly teach.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1.       What are the characteristics of Anglo-Saxon literature?

2.       Give a brief comment on Beowulf.

3.       What is romance? How many cycles can romance be divided into? What are they?

4.       Give a brief comment on Chaucer’s literary career and his contribution.