Chapter 1   Introduction

1. What is linguistics?

1.1 Definition

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.

Linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general. The process of linguistic study is: first, certain linguistic facts are ob­served, and generalizations are made about them; second, based on these generalizations, hypotheses are formed to account for these facts; third, the hypotheses are tested by further observations; and finally, a linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.

1.2 The scope of linguistics

    The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.

    While sounds are primary in linguistic communication, they are repre­sented by certain symbols, i.e., words and morphemes. The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called mor­phology. The combination of these words to form permissible sentences in lan­guages is governed by rules. The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. The study of meaning in lan­guage is called semantics. The study of meaning in con­text of use is called pragmatics.

    Language is a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. Therefore, language and society are closely related. The language a person uses often reveals his social background, and there exist social norms that determine the type of language to be used on a certain occasion; and language changes are often caused by social changes. The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics; the study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.  It aims to study the ways the human mind works when we use language, the ways we acquire our mother tongue, the ways we memorize, the ways we process the information we receive in the course of communication, etc.

    In a broad sense, applied linguistics is concerned about the application of linguistic principles and theories to the solution of everyday problems. In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.

    Other branches of linguistics include anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.

1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics

1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. Descriptive

    Modern linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. The major task of a linguist is to describe language in an objective way. His investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data. Traditional grammar is prescriptive in the sense that it tries to lay down a series of grammatical rules and these grammatical rules are then forced on the language users.  Any use of language which conforms to the prescribed rules is labeled as correct; otherwise, it will be labeled as incorrect.

1.3.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic

The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the de­scription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. Modern linguistics is mainly a synchronic study.

1.3.3 Speech and writing

Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. First, speech is prior to writing. The writ­ing system is a later invention, used to record the speech. And then in terms of function, the spoken form of language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written form, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.

In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over - emphasize the im­portance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.

1.3.4 Langue and parole

The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early last century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; Langue is abstract in the sense that it is not the language people actually use. Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use, therefore, it is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Paroles are the naturally occurring language events. They vary from person to person, and from situation to situation.

Saussure believes that parole is too varied and confusing for systematic in­vestigation.

1.3.5. Competence and performance

The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist Noam Chomsky in the late 1950' s. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language. It is a set of rules internalized in the mind of a language user which enables him to produce and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.  Performance is the actual realization of this knowl­edge in linguistic communication. Chomsky thinks that linguists should study the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance, because performances are not systematic.

Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar. However, Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social inventions, whereas Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.

2. What is language?

2.1 Definitions of language

Modem linguists have proposed various definitions of language. The generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition includes a number of important language features. Firstly, language is a system. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are.

2.2 Design features

Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.

1) Arbitrariness

The arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no nec­essary relationship between the word table and the object it stands for. Another good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. In addition, the same sound may be used to refer to different objects in different languages.

2) Productivity

Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con­struction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that the language users have never said or heard before.

3) Duality

The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words. Then at the higher level, the units can be arranged and rear­ranged into an infinite number of sentences.

4) Displacement

Displacement means that language can be used to talk about anything in far-away places in the past, at present or in the future. It can be used to talk about our real word experiences or our imaginary world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.

5) Cultural transmission

While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by in­stinct.

 

 

要点、难点问答

1.    What are the major branches of linguistics?

Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:

  General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study;

  Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication;

  Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication;

  Mor­phology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words;

  Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences;

  Semantics, which is the study of meaning in lan­guage;

  Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of use;

  Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society;

  Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind;

  Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a nar­row sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.

   Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.

2.    What are the differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar?

   Traditional gram­mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" (religious, literary) written lan­guage. It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.

3.    What are synchronic and diachronic studies of language?

    The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the de­scription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a his­torical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.

4.    What are the design features of language?

1) Arbitrariness

   It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no nec­essary relationship between the word ‘dog’ and the animal it refers to. The fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.

2) Productivity

    Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con­struction and interpretation of an infinite number of sentences, including those that people have never said or heard before.

3) Duality

    It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or dou­ble articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.

4) Displacement

It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real world experiences or the experiences in our imaginary world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.

5) Cultural transmission

    While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.

5.    What is the distinction between Chomsky’s competence and performance?

    American linguist Norm Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.

6.    How does Saussure distinguish langue and parole?

    The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. ‘Langue’ and ‘parole’ are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. But parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.