The naming theory命名论

The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.

The conceptualist view概念论

This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to

Contextualism语境论

They hold that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context-elements closely linked with language behaviour. A representative of this approach was J.R. Firth, the leading British linguist of the period.

Behaviorism行为主义论

Meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.

Sspeech acy(言语行为)

Explain the speech Act Theory with examples 言语行为理论

Speech act theory,it’s an important theory in pragmatics.It is a theory that the nature of linguistic communication.It was originated with John Austin in the late 1950s.

At the beginning be made a distinction between what called “constative”and”performatives”.Constative were statement that either state or decribe and were thus verifiable (eg:There is water in the earth) on the other hand,performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or decribe a state,and were not verifiable (eg:I do).”I do”is ysed in the course of marriage ceremong for the speaker to get married.Later,according to his new moder,a speaker might be performing there acts at the same time who speaking:locutionary act;illocutionary act and percocutionary act.

A locutionary act(言内行为) is the act of uttering word,phrases,clauses.It is the act of cinveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexican and phonology.

An illocutionary act(言外行为) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention,it is the act performed in saying something.

A perlocutionary act(言后行为) is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.It is the consequence of,or the change brought about,by the utterance:it is the act performed by saying something.eg:”I’m hot”.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words”I””am””hot”etc,thus expressing what the word literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking.ie:asking someone to open the window or ask for something to drink depending on the context.The percocutionary act refers to the affect of the utterance.If the heaver gets the speaker’s message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to open the window.The speaker has success fully brought about the change in the real word he has intended then the percocutionary act is success fully performed.

Cooperative Principle:（会话原则）

Cooperative Principle: make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.

The maxim of quantity

1). Make your contribution as informative as required ( for the current purpose of the exchange)

2). Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

The maxim of quality

1). Do not say what you believe to be false.

2). Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

The maxim of relation

1). Be relevant

The maxim of manner

1). Avoid obscurity of expression.

2). Avoid ambiguity.

3). Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).

4) Be orderly.

语言习得（language acquisition）

Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation

An innatist view clains that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking.

Illustrate vocabulary change with examples词汇的变化

Addition in meaning of words

a) Coinage 创新词 walkman Kodak Xerox Ford

b) Clipped words 缩略词 gym---gymnasium disco—discotheque memorandum

c) Blending 紧缩法 smog---smoke+ fog brunch---- breakfast+ lunch

d) Acronyms 词首字母缩略词 ISBN---- International Standard Book Number

e) Back-formation 逆构词法 to hawk ( derived from hawker) to beg (beggar)

f) Functional shift 功能转换 N—V V—N Adj—V Adj—N

g) Borrowing 借用 bonus tragedy sampan kowtow

loss of words include some words in Shakespeare's words are no longer in use (not,to know)

Changes in meaning of words include

a) Widening of meaning b) Narrowing of meaning c) Meaning shift

a) Widening of meaning holiday [+specific ] [+general]

holy day any rest day

tail [+specific ] [+general]

horse any animal

b) Narrowing of meaning deer--- any animal→ a particular kind of animal

meat---food → edible part of an animal

corn--- grain → a particular grain

c) Meaning shift inn→ Holiday Inn

nice→ ignorant ( 1000 years ago)