1. Displacement (1)it is one of the design features of language which was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett in 1960 .(2) it means that language can be used to symbolize objects, events and concepts in the past,present，or future or in far-away places, that is language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Fot example, we can say:“ I bought my car last year”, though the car perhaps now is not here, though the action “buy” happened in last year, an animal can never talk about things that happened last year.（3） This property of language enables speakers to have an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things， free form the barriers caused by remoteness in time and place.

2 parole： (1 )parole , together with langue, was one of the distinctions proposed by the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure in the early 20th century.(2) It refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules, referring to the naturally occurring language events.(3) It varies from person to person and from situation to situation. Fot example，our Chinese people can speak Chinese, but different people they speak in their own way and even themselves speak differently in different situation, this is parole. (4) Saussure took a sociological view of language to distinguish it.

3 duality: (1)it is one of the design features of language which was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett in 1960 .(2) It refers to the property of having two levels of structures in a language, at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves, such as /f/, /b/, /t/, /i:/ and so on. At the higher level , the sounds are grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words, such as the sound /k/ and the sound /a:/ are used together to form a meaningful unit /k a:/ (car). (3) Each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. The duality of structure of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.

4 Arbitrariness: (1)it is one of the design features of language which was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett in 1960 .(2) it refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings，i.e. there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For example . in different languages, we use different sounds to refer to the same things. (3) while we say language is arbitrary, we should notice the fact that language is not entirely arbitrary, for there are words , such as the onomatopoeic words and the compound words , have some connections between their sounds and meaning. But non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary.

5 Creativity\ productivity: (1)it is one of the design features of language which was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett in 1960 .(2) it means that language users can make possible the construction and interpretation of new signals , they can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, they can send signals that no one else has ever sent before. For example, perhaps we just know the meaning of the word mountain , we have never heard or said the sentence I want to dance on the beautiful mountain , when somebody says this sentence to us , we can well understand it and we can also make more sentences with mountain that we have never said before because of productivity of our language.(3) this property of language enable us to use limited sounds and words to form unlimited words or sentences.

6 cultural transmission(1)it is one of the design features of language which was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett in 1960 (2) it means language is culturally transmitted through teaching and learning;, rather than by instinct. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, i.e., the capacity for language we possess has a genetic basis, but the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, we have to be taught and learned to master a language. For example , we Chinese people cannot understand a Japanese if we haven’t been taught or we haven’t learned Japanese.

7 Langue ---- (1) Langue, together with parole, was one of the distinctions proposed by the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure in the early 20th century.(2) It refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. (ie, Chinese linguistic system, English linguistic system) It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. It is abstract and not the language people actually use. (3) langue is relatively stable and does not change frequently, so Saussure thinks that what linguists should study is langue. (4) Saussure took a sociological view of language to distinguish it.

8 competence (1) competence is one of the factors in the distinction between competence and performance which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in late 1950s (2) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” refers to the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language that enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. (3) A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(4) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language. (5) N. Chomsky deals with his issues psychologically

9 Performance-(1) Performance is one of the factors in the distinction between competence and performance which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in late 1950s (2) it refers to the actual realization of the user’s knowledge in linguistic communication. According to N. Chomsky, A speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, but he can still make mistakes in actual use, e.g. slips of the tongue, and unnecessary pauses, despite his perfect knowledge of his language. Such actual realization of one’s language is called performance.(3) A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, thus, Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance which is too haphazard to be studied.(4) N. Chomsky deals with his issues psychologically

3. Derivation: It is a process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems or words. such as we add the suffix “ment”to “develop”and the prefix “un”to “able”,thus creating the new words “development”and “unable”

4. back-formation: It is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the supposed suffix of an existing word. such as we form the new word“edit” by taking away the supposed suffix“or”in the word“editor”. Other examples such as babysitter→babysit, beggar→beg.

5. semantic narrowing:Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.Such as the word “deer”originally meant any animal, but now it just means a special kind of animal, the meaning was narrowed.

6. clipping: it refers to this way of word formation in which we clip part of one longer words into a shorter one. sometimes we eliminate(去掉、根除) the front part of a longer word such as“hamburger”can be shortened as“burger”, sometimes we eliminate the back part of a longer word such as “gymnasium” can be shortened as “gym”, sometimes both such as “refrigerator” can be clipped to “fridge”

9.Compounding:It is a process of combining two or more than two words into one lexical unit. Such as, we combined the word “green” and word “house” to form a new word “greenhouse”, this kind of method of word-formation is called compounding

10. Blending: It is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words. Such as we blend part of“smoke”and part of“fog”together to form the new word“smog”.(凡是涉及到举例的，自己可以根据书上的例子自己举)学会这种答题方式就行了

11. semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation. Such as the word “tail”originally meant the tail of horse, but now it means the tail of any animal, the meaning was broadened.

62. semantic shift:Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related, meaning. Such as the word “nice” meant “ignorant “ a thousand years ago, but now it means “pleasant, enjoyable”, the meaning of it changed greatly.

64. Acronym: An acronym is a word created by combining the initials of a number of words. Such as we combine the initials of “world”, “trade”, “organization” together to form the new word “WTO”to refer to a special organization.

65. sound assimilation: Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds are made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, such as the sound [n] in word “bank”is , to some extent, assimilated by the velar sound [k] into [?] because [k] and [?] are more similar than [k] and [n] in terms of place of articulation.

66. What is the purpose or significance of the historical study of language

1) Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric developments in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages.

2) The identification of the changes that a particular language has undergone enables us to reconstruct the linguistic history of that language, and thereby hypothesizes its earlier forms from which current speech and writing have evolved.

3) The historical study of language also enables them to determine how non - linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to cause linguistic change.

67. What are the characteristics of the nature of language change

All living languages change with time and language change is inevitable. As a general rule, language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. Language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar. Although language change is universal, inevitable, and in some cases, vigorous, it is never an overnight occurrence, but a gradual and constant process, often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation.

69. As language changes over time, the meaning of a word may deviate from its original denotation. Discuss the major types of semantic changes.

Major types of semantic changes are semantic broadening, semantic narrowing and semantic shift.

Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation. Take the word "holiday" for example, The older meaning was a " holy day." Today everyone enjoys a holiday, whether he or she is religious or not.

Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word be-comes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. For example, " wife," used to mean "any woman," but now it means “married females” only.

Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related, meaning. For example, the word“ silly” meant “happy” in Old English, and “na?ve” in Middle English, but "foolish" in Modern English.

37. Reference: It is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.

38. Conceptualism: It is the view which holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the rind. 39. Synonymy: It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Synonyms can be divided into dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive synonyms, collocational synonyms and semantic synonyms.

40. Entailment: It is basically a semantic relation (or logical implication), and it can be clarified with the following sentences: (a) Tom divorced Jane. (b) Jane was Tom's wife.

In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between these two sentences: when A is true, B must be also true; when B is false, A must also be false. When B is true, A may be true or false. Therefore we can say A entails B.

41. Componential analysis: It defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components, or semantic features. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE. Similarly girl may be analyzed ink HUMAN, YOUNG and FEMALE.

42. Sense:It is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It i> the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.

1. What are the major semantics schools?

1) The naming theory: One of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.

2) The conceptualist view: It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.

3) Contextualism: It is based on the presumption(假定) that one can derive推导) meaning from or reduce meaning to observable可观测的) contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context .For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context in which the sentence occurs:

4) Behaviorism

The contextualist view was further strengthened by $2. He drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language form as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer". This behaviorist theory is somewhat close to contextualism. It is linked with psychological interest.

2 Explain what is sense and what is reference with examples.

Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is a collection of semantic meanings, it is abstract and decontextualized while reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality. For example, the sense of the word “dog” is often defined as “a domesticated, canine mammal’. This does not refer to any particular dog that exists in the real world, but applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition. The reference of the word “dog” in “The dog is barking” for example refers to a particular dog known to both the speaker and the hearer in a particular situation where a conversation is taking place.

43. sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social contexts.

44. speech community:The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech community or a speech community is a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.

45. speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features.

47. Idiolect:An idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another. In a narrower sense, what makes up one’s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality, pitch and speech rhythm, which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual' s speech. Such Hemingway’s language or Mark Twain’s language are actually their idiolect.

48. standard language : The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.

51. pidgin: A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. it is always characterized by Limited vocabulary, much reduced grammatical structure such as the loss of inflections, gender and case.

52. Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community. When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.

53. diglossia :Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of the same one language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.

54. Bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.

55. ethnic dialect:Within a society, speech variation may come about because of different ethnic backgrounds . An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation.

56. Sociolect: Social dialects, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.

57. register:Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. Format reason, registers are also known as situational dialects .

ng, many people find them offensive and prefer plain language.

Sense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.

n Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the

features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.

n Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the

real, physical world; it deals with the relationship

between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic

world of experience.

n Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline…

2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;…

3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, e.g.collaborator- accomplice,…

4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuse…of, charge…with, rebuke…for; …

5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound,…

n Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …

n Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …

n Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, …

n Gradable antonyms ----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …

n Complementary antonyms ----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …

n Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.

n Homophone ---- when two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, …

n Homogragh ---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …

n Complete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, e.g. ball, bank, watch, scale, fast, …

n Hyponymy----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.

n Superordinate: the word which is more general in meaning.

n Hyponyms: the word which is more specific in mea(1) X is synonymous with Y

n (2) X is inconsistent with Y

n (3) X entails Y

n (4) X presupposes Y

n (5) X is a contradiction

n (6) X is semantically anomalous

n ning.

n Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.

n Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,

n Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]

n Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]

n Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE ]

n Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]

v Second Language Acquisition---- formally established itself as a discipline around the 1970s, refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.

v Interlanguage(中介语）is an abstract system of learners’ target language system and it has now been widely used to refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce, (especially the wrong or not idiomatic idiomatic ones) or learner language, which tend to become stablized or fossilized at certain level.

Error analysis (EA)

v The contrastive approach to learners’ errors has shed new light on people’s attitudes: the errors are significant in telling the teacher what needs to be taught, in telling the researcher how learning proceeds and those errors are a means whereby learners test their hypotheses about the language to be learnt.

v Two main sorts of errors: Interlingual errors & intralingual errors（语际语误和语内语误）

Interlingual errors语际语误---Interlingual errors mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal etc. For examples,

a. Substitution of [t] for [θ ] and [d] for [e ]: threeàtree, thisàdis.

b. Shortening of long vowels: sheepàship, meetàmit

* I like read book.我喜欢读书

* He wants go to school.

Intralingual errors语内语误

The intralingual errors mainly from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.such as:

* $2 lies on the east of $2.

* We have received 20 pictures from the spaceship by 8 o’clock yesterday morning.

* If it will rain tomorrow, I will stay at home.

* I will never forget the day in which I met you

Overgeneralization ---- the use of previously available strategies in new situations

v Cross-association refers to the phenomenon that the close association of the two similar words often leads to confusion, e.g.

v Other/another, much/many, stalagmite/stalactite…

v It may also occurs at all levels of language from phonological to syntactic, e.g.

The coffee is too hot to drink.

*The apricot is too sour to eat it.

v Errors ---- unintentionally deviant from the target language and not self-corrigible by the learner (failure in competence)（学习者无意识地偏离目标语，学习者不能自我纠正）；

v Mistakes ---- either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible (failure in performance).（有意识或无意识地偏离形式，可以自我纠正）

v Fossilization---- a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.

n Language acquisition----refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of is community.

Chomsky proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability known as Language Acquisition Device or LAD(语言习得机制）which is described as an imaginary“black box” existing somewhere in the human brain. The box is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages.(

Under-extension外延缩小： the denial of bird as animals

2) Over-extension外延过分扩大:refer to any male adult as father

What is culture?

In a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community.

In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc.

There are generally two types of culture: material and spiritual.（物质文化和精神文化）

Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.

This hypothesis is now developed into two versions : Strong version(强式版本） and weak version（弱式版本）

Strong version believes that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior;（强式版本坚信语言形式决定人们的思想和行为）

Weak version holds that the former influence the latter.（弱式版本坚信语言形式影响人们的思想和行为）

assimilation（文化同化）is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society—though not always completely