第12章

Paradigms: Present of classes n, V and VUI

1.Athematic presents

    The four present classes so far dealt with (I, IV, VI and X) are the thematic classes: they differ from each other only in the way in which the stem is formed from the root, for the stem thus formed always ends in (or: is linked to the endings by) the thematic vowel a. The other six classes are comparable with the nominal consonant stems, and their inflexion is of far greater difficulty and variety mainly because the stem is in direct contact (collision may sometimes seem a better word) with the personal endings. One may distinguish practically between the lesser complications of those classes where the stem ends in a suffix (V, VIII, IX) and the greater complications of those where the final letter of the stem is also the final letter of the actual root (II, m, VII).

In class II, the root class, the stem consists simply of the root itself. This generally strengthens to gun a in the strong grade and remains unchanged in the weak grade. In this and all other athematic classes, the strong grade appears in the whole of the singular parasmaipada both present and imperfect, in the third person singular parasmaipada of the imperative, and in all first person forms of the imperative, while two noteworthy features of the personal terminations of athematic verbs are the absence of n in the third person plural atmanepada present, imperfect and imperative, and the addition of the suffix dhi (after consonants) or hi (afrer vowels) in the second person singular imperative parasmaipada.

    The conjugation of the commonest class II root, as ‘be’, has already been introduced. The inflexion of i ‘go’ is typical of a root ending in a vowel: among sandhi changes one may note retroflexion of s (esi ‘you go’) and consonantalisation of i (yantt ‘they go’). The inflexion of dviṣ ‘hate’ illustrates some of the sandhis of final ṣ: thus ṣ + s = kṣ, ṣ + dh = ḍḍh.

The strong grade of han ‘kill’ is han: so handti ‘he kills’,: which looks misleadingly like a plural form. The weak grade-is also stated as han, but it appears as ha before t/th and as ghn before a: hatha ‘you kill’; ghnanti ‘they kill’. The second person singular imperative is jahi.     

One root retains the strong grade throughout: śī, śete ‘he lies’. Some, though classed as root verbs, add the suffix i before some terminations: rud, roditi ‘he weeps’, brū ‘speak’ adds ī in the strong forms before a consonant: bravītu ‘let him speak’.

Class V verbs add the suffix nu before the terminations, and this strengthens to no in the strong grade. The root śru ‘hear’ forms a present stem śṛṇu/śṛṇo (on the basis of a more primitive form of the root, śṛ):śṛṇoṣi ‘you hear’. Roots ending in a vowel (a) do not take the suffix hi in the second person singular imperative, (b) may optionally reduce nu to n before v and m: śṛṇu ‘listen’; śṛṇumaḥ or śṛṇmaḥ ‘we hear’. Roots ending in a consonant (a) must add hi in the imperative, (b) must change nu to nuv before vowels: āpnuhi ‘obtain’;āpnuvanti ‘they obtain’.

Class Vm verbs add the suffix u, strengthening to o. Of the eight verbs in this class, seven have roots ending in n and behave in the same way as class V roots ending in vowels, as described above: tan, tanoti ‘he extends’; tanuvaḥ or tanvaḥ ‘we two extend’. The eighth verb is the common kṛ ‘do’.The strong stem is karo, the weak kuru, but this latter must appear as kur before v, m and y. The second person singular imperative parasmaipada is kuru.

The formation of the present participles of athematics is mentioned in Chapter io. Remember that the atmanepada participle is in -āna, not -amāna. The present participle of is ās ‘stay’ is anomalous, āsīna.

Gerundives

The gerundive (sometimes called the future passive participle) is a verbal adjective with passive sense expressing such notions as obligation or necessity—‘(requiring) to be done’ etc. It may be formed in a number of alternative ways, by the addition to the root of any of three suffixes: ya, anlya, tavya.

The gerundive in ya is the most ancient of the three and shows the greatest variety of formation. In general, the following are the changes undergone by the root before this suffix. Final ā becomes e: da, deya ‘to be given’. Final i/ī strengthens to e: nī, neya ‘to be led’. Final u/ū strengthens to av or to āv: śru, śravya or srāvya ‘to be heard’. Final ṛ/ṝ strengthens to ār: kṛ, kārya ‘to be done’. Followed by a single consonant, medial i/u becomes e/o, medial ṛ is unchanged, medial a sometimes remains and some-times strengthens to ā: śuc, śocya ‘to be mourned for’; bhid, : bhedya ‘to be split’; dṛś, dṛśya ‘to be seen’; gam, gamya ‘to be I gone to’; but vac, vācya ‘to be spoken’.

As well as exceptions to the above, there are a number of alternative forms: most notably, final i/u/rmay remain unstrengthened and add a connecting t: so śrutya besides śravya and śrāvya, kṛtya besides kārya.

Derivative stems drop aya before adding ya: varṇya ‘to be described’. Gerundives in ya from causatives are, However; little found, since they would not usually be distinguishable from the gerundive of the simple verb.

The suffix anīya is an adjectival extension of the suffix ana, which is most commonly used to form neuter action nouns (see Chapter 8). The root almost always appears in the guṇa grade, being strengthened to the same extent as in forming class I presents: kṛ, karaṇīya ‘to be done’; nind, nindanīya ‘blameworthy’. Derivative stems again drop aya. A number of causative forms are found, e.g. bhāvanīya ‘to be caused to be’.

The suffix tavya is an adjectival extension of another suffix, this time of the obsolete verbal noun in tu on which the infinitive and the absolutive are based. This type of gerundive may in fact be formed by substituting tavya for the turn of the infinitive, and so the remarks in Chapter 13 (pp. 172-4) on the formation of the infinitive should now be studied and the list of principal parts of verbs consulted. A point to note particularly is that, as in the infinitive, derivative stems retain the suffix ay: from vid ‘know’, veditavya ‘to be known’ but vedayitavya ‘to be made known’. Causatives form gerundives of this type freely.

As was mentioned in Chapter 8, the prefixes su and dus (as also īṣat ‘slightly’) combine not with a gerundive but with a verbal noun in a:dur: jaya ‘difficult to conquer’ etc.

Gerundives may be used predicatively in sentences expressing obligation or necessity: ahaṃ bhavadbhir draṣṭavyaḥ ‘I am to be seen by you’. As with past participles, a passive is often best translated by an active, and so the above may be represented by ‘you must see me’. In English, in fact, it is often appropriate to translate as an imperative, and so we may also say ‘(come and) see me’.

While there is a considerable overlap between gerundive, certain differences of usage can be distinguished .The types in ya and anīya, and particularly the former,tend to have a wider, more characterising sense: thus a:nirvarṇyaṃkhalu para-kalatram‘one ought not of course to gaze upon the wife of a stranger’—whereas ‘don’t look at her’ would probably be expressed by na draṣṭavyā. These forms are thus far more likely than the tavya form to be used as simple adjectives—e.g. ślāghya ‘praiseworthy’, śocanīya ‘lamentable’. They are particularly used after verbs with prefixes; they may also combine with the negative prefix a, and even appear to a limited extent at the end of determinative compounds: e.g. anantara:karaṇīya ‘to be done immediately’. The implication of necessity may be entirely lost in the more general notion of potentiality: ‘such as to be’, and therefore ‘capable of being’. The meaning then comes close to that of the past participle but is normally to be distinguished by the absence of any factual implication: dṛṣṭa ‘(actually) seen’, but dṛśya ‘visible’ and prayatna-prekṣaṇīya ‘to be discerned with difficulty’.

ari-balaṃ ca vihata:vidhvastaṃ strī;bāla-hārya:śastraṃ vartate

and the enemy’s forces, broken and shattered, are in a state where their weapons [are takeable:] could be taken by women or children

敌军溃败，（其）武器（甚至）可以被妇孺夺走。

The gerundive in tavya, on the other hand, while it can be used in both general and particular statements and with prefixed and unprefixed verbs, seldom loses the notion of necessity and is normally used as the predicate of a sentence rather than as an attributive adjective. (It may appear as the predicate of a locative absolute: thus durga-saṃskāra ārabdhavye ‘(at a time) when fortifications ought to be undertaken’.) It should not be used at the end of a nominal compound or in combination with the prefix a.

A strictly passive sense is more universally prevalent in gerundives than in past participles, even for verbs normally intransitive. Thus gamya, gamanīya and gantavya may all mean ‘(requiring) to be gone to’. However, a gerundive construction can be given to an essentially intransitive verb by means of the impersonal passive:

nanu Lavaṅgike, Kāmandakyā›pi na khalv ataḥ param... jīvitavyam

why Lavaṅgikā, Kāmandakī too shall certainly not live any longer (lit. it is not to be lived by Kāmandakī etc.)

     Lavaṅgikā，难道Kāmandakī从此也不应该活着吗？

Particularly noteworthy, as defying literal translation into English, is the frequent impersonal use of the gerundive of bhū ‘be’. The complement of the verb like the logical subject itself must be put in the instrumental case:

tad bhagavati Godāvari, tvayā tatra s›āvadhānayā bhavi-tavyam

so venerable Godavari, you must be watchful in the matter

viśrāntena bhavatā mam›ânyasminn an:āyāse karmaṇi sahāyena bhavitavyam

when rested, you must be my companion in another task, which is not a strenuous one

休息的时候，你应该在我的另一件不困难的事业上的助手。

This particular gerundive is often used to mark an inference:

vyaktam āhituṇdika_- cchadmanā Virādhagupten›ânena bhavitavyam

   this (person) must obviously be Virādhagupta disguised as a snake-charmer

aye dhīra:praśāntaḥ svaraḥ—tat tapasvibhir bhavitavyam

such strong, calm tones! It must then be ascetics (I can hear)

Similarly, in an inference about a past event, evam anayā praṣṭavyam ‘[thus:] this is what she must have asked’.

kṛ and compounds of kṛ and bhū

The verb kṛ may be translated by ‘do’ or ‘make’ in English: kiṃ kurmaḥ? ‘what shall we do?’; kumbhaṃ karoti ‘he is making a pot’. With an abstract noun in the accusative it has the effect of creating a more complex verb: vandanāṃ karoti ‘makes salutation, salutes’_{（顶礼，作揖）}; āśvāsana-mātraṃ karoti ‘makes mere consolation, merely consoles’_{（唯作安慰）}. Like ‘make’ in English, it may also be used with an accusative and a predicative adjective to give causative sense: tvām a:kāmaṃ karomi‘I’ll [make you one-whose-desires-are-not:] frustrate you’._{（我要让你不爽）}

tat kim atra vipine priyā-vārtt»⏓āharaṃ karomi?

what then in this forest shall I make a carrier of news to my beloved?

在这森林里，我让谁传递我爱人的信息呢？

In this sense of ‘turn into’, however there is an alternative construction. One may compound the predicative adjective with the verb by changing the a of the adjective’s stem to i and adding it directly to the front of kṛ: so tvām a:kāmam karomi might appear instead as tvām akāmīkaromi (if we wish to preserve the punctuation we may write a:kāmī~karomi). The rule is that nouns change final a, ā, i or in to ī and final u to ū (as in laghu ‘light’, laghūkṛ ‘lighten’), while most other stems would appear without change; but the formation is far commoner with nouns in a than with any others. Substantives are as freely used as adjectives in this construction, e.g. aṇgī~karoti ‘turns into a limb, subordinates’._{（成为附属）}

The same construction is found with the verb bhū in the sense of ‘become’, e.g. aṅgī~bhūta ‘become a limb, subordinated’. This is distinct in meaning from the karmadhāraya aṅga:bhūta ‘being a limb, subordinate’.

In this way we have pairs of transitive and intransitive denominative verbs. Mention was made in Chapter 9 of the denominative pair śithilayati ‘slackens (trans.)’ and śithilāyate ‘slackens (intrans.)’. With the same meanings we may form āithilī~karoti and āithilī~bhavati.

This construction forms a small exception to the general principle in Sanskrit that nouns may compound with each other but not with finite verbs (and even this construction occurs most commonly of all in non-finite forms, in particular in the past participle).

In a similar way there are a number of adverbs and other nonverbal forms which may be combined with kṛ and bhū (and to a limited extent also with dhā ‘put’ and as ‘be’). So from the Vedic adverb āvis ‘openly’, āviṣ~kṛ ‘reveal’, āviṛ~bhū ‘become apparent’. Similarly, from tiras ‘secretly’, tiras~kṛ ‘conceal’, tiro~bhū ‘vanish’. It is kṛ which combines with the widest variety of such forms. Among other examples one might mention alaṃkaroti ‘ornaments’, namaskaroti ‘pays homage to’, satkaroti ‘does honour to’.

In all such compounds the absolutive used should be the compound form in ya.

Relative adverbs 关系副词

The tendency of pronominal adverbs to act as extensions of the case system was mentioned in the previous chapter—e.g. atra vane =asmin vane ‘in this forest’. Relative adverbs used in this way are simple extensions therefore of the relative pronoun. This is often true of yatra ‘where, in which’ and yataḥ ‘from where ,from which’.Thus tad eta Prācetas›-âdhyuṣitam araṇyaṃ,yatra kila devī parityaktā ‘this is the forest inhabited by Prācetasa,in which [or where], I believe,Her Majesty was abandoned’_{（这是Prācetasa居住地森林，看来王后被抛弃在了这里）}.One may substitute yasmin for yatra in the above sentencs without affecting the meaning.

In their characteristic use, however relative adverbs have simply a more limited scope than the relative pronoun, in that the correlative adverb plays the same role in the main clause as the relative adverb in the relative clause (as when relative and correlative pronoun are in the same case): so yadā... tadā ‘at which time,... at that time’, yathā... tathā ‘in which way — in that way’, etc. Thus the relative clause and the main clause share a common feature: in ‘where the rain falls, there the plants grow’, the falling of the rain and the growing of plants are given a common location; if one substituted ‘when... then’, they would be given a common time.

The general feature of adverbial relative clauses are those already described for other relative clauses. The correlative adverb will correspond in function to its relative, but there may be a choice of forms. For instance, the correlative of yathā ‘as’ may equally well be either tathā or evam ‘so, thus’:

kim nu khalu yathā vayam asyām, evam iyam apy asmān prati syāt? could she for her part possibly [be:] feel towards us as we (do) towards her?

就像我们对她（有意）一样，她对我们也是这样吗？

‘kim tu katham asmābhir upagantavya iti saṃpradhārayāmi’— ‘yath» aîva gurus tath» ôpasadanena

 ‘but I am wondering in what way we ought to approach him’—‘with the same respectful salutation as (one would) one’s preceptor’

A particular use of yathā is in inferences—‘from the way that’:

yathā-umukham ālokayadi, tathā vyaktaṃ ‘pravāsa-utsuka-manasā mayā na dṛṣṭā ity āha (p62,§211)

from the way he gazes up, he is obviously saying, ‘with my mind eager for the journey, I didn’t see her’

就像他抬脸凝望的样子，显然他在说：“心儿企盼出游的我没有看到她。”

The most usual correlative of yadā ‘when’ is tadā ‘then’, but others such as tataḥ ‘thereupon’ and atha ‘hereat’ are also found. Even if tadā itself is used, the relation of the two clauses is often one of sequence rather than of strict contemporaneity. Temporal clauses in narrative tend to be rather long, and for the usual reason that short clauses may be expressed in other ways in Sanskrit. Because it is not necessary for a relative pronoun or adverb to stand at the beginning of its clause, it is quite possible for the writer or speaker to be well launched on his sentence before deciding to subordinate it as a relative clause:

tataḥ ‘kutas tava ayaṃ mahān dhana-āgama?’ iti pṛcchyamāno yadā vākya-bhedam ākulam akathayat, tadā Cāṇakya:hataka-ādeśad vicitreṇa vadhena vyāpaditaḥ

then, when on being asked ‘where did your great accession of wealth (come) from?’ he told a confused variety of stories, he was by order of the accursed Canakya [killed by a variegated death:] put to death by torture

于是，（他）被问到这一大笔钱从何而来，当他支支吾吾，前言不搭后语地作答，被卑鄙（小人）Cāṇakya的命令，以种种处罚致死。

The word yāvat ‘while’ deserves comment. It is in origin the adverbially used neuter singular of the relative pronoun yāvant ‘as much ... as’, whose use is illustrated by

yāvānartha udapāne sarvataḥsaṃplut›:ôdake, tāvānsarveṣu vedeṣu brāhmaṇasya vijānataḥ(Bhagavadgīta 2.46)

as much point as (there is) in a water-tank when it has water flooding all round it, so much (is there) in all the Vedas for a brahmin who discerns [gen. sg. pres. part, of vijñā]

对睿智的婆罗门而言，到处水流泛滥的水井意义有多少，一切吠陀的意义也就如此。（薄伽梵歌2.46）

yāvat thus means in origin 'for all the time that, for as long as’, and this is the meaning which it has in forming ‘prepositional’ compounds similar to those made with yathā described in Chapter 9, where it may represent the same notion as the English ‘throughout’: e.g. yāvad_rājyam ‘throughout the reign’, yāvad_adhyayanam ‘throughout the (period of) study’. As a conjunction yāvat may mean ‘during all or some of the time that’ and thus correspond to ‘while’:

yāvat prāṇimi(2√prān,p48,§154),tāvadasya…madana-saṃtāpasya pratikriyāṃ kriyamāṇām icchāmi

         I want a remedy to be contrived for this love-torment while I am (still) breathing.

    只要我还有一口气，我就想着要做的对爱情折磨的报复。

Vijaye, muhūrtam nibhṛta: pada⏓saṃcārā bhava,yāvadasya parān:mukhasy›aîva pāṇibhyām nayane niruṇadhmi

Vijayā, keep your footsteps quiet for a moment, while I cover fus eyes with my hands as he is looking the other way

稍微收敛你的脚步，直到我用双手遮住面朝他方的他的双眼。

upaśleṣaya rathaṃ yāvad ārohāmi

bring up the chariot white I get in

In the last two examples the idea of purpose is present, and the notion of ‘while’ shades into that of ‘until’, which is another meaning of ylvat. In this latter sense it is often but not necessarily construed with the future tense:

pratīkṣasva kāni cid dināni,yāvadiyam…prakṛtāv eva sthāsyati

wait for a few days,until she [shall abide in her actual nature:] comes to her senses

你等待数日，直到她恢复神智（安住于本来状态）

tat sarvathā›smāt sthānād anyat sthānam āśrayāmi yāvad asya mayā vijñataṃ cikīrṣitam

 so at all events I’ll go from this place to another until I have found out his intentions [p.p. in the sense of a (future) perfect]

‘Until, up to’ is also the usual meaning of yāvat when it is a preposition governing (and following) a noun in the accusative: e.g. sūry›-ôdayaṃ yāvat ‘until sunrise’. This contrasts with the meaning ‘throughout’ which it usually has in prepositional compounds. (However the difference will normally also be conveyed by the presence, on the one hand, of a word more naturally implying duration, such as ‘life’, or, on the other; of one more naturally implying an event, such as ‘arrival’.)

Finally, yāvat with a negative may be translated ‘before’ (although there are other ways of expressing this notion, such as the use of prāk or pūrvam with the ablative of an abstract noun):

... na yāvad āyāti, tāvat tvaritam anena tarugahanen›âpasarpata

 [while he is not coming:] before he comes, escape quickly through this wood

The following example combines yāvat ‘while’ and yāvat + na ‘before’:

yāvad eva sa_cetanā›smi, yāvad eva ca na parisphuṭam anena vibhāvyate me madana-duśceṣṭitalāghavam etat, tāvad ev›âsmāt pradeśād apasarpaṇaṃ śreyaḥ

 it is better to escape from this place while I am still conscious, and [while by him is not clearly detected:] before he clearly detects in me this disrespect (arising) from the mischievous workings of passion

The adverbial suffix vat  副词后缀vat(p18.§61)

The possessive suffix vant is used adverbially in the neuter singular with the special sense of expressing a comparison: thus brāhmaṇa vat ‘like a brahmin’. There is nothing in the form to indicate the grammatical role played by the subject of the comparison in the rest of the sentence, and so according to context brāhmaṇa vat may be the equivalent of brāhmaṇa iva, brāhmaṇam iva, etc. In the following example the context shows that pitṛ vat is the equivalent of pitṛn iva:

Kāśī-pati;Maithil›;Âṇga:rājāṃs ca suhṛn-niveditān pitṛvadapaśyat

and he (the prince) looked on the kings of Kāśī, Mithilā and the Aṅgas, presented by his friends, as his fathers.

他看朋友们告知的诸王，犹如父亲。

viśeṣaḥ 殊胜

viśeṣaḥ literally means ‘distinction, difference, particularity’, and is is often used in this literal sense. At the end of a determinative compound (analysable as either dependent or descriptive) it may also be used idiomatically to express the notion ‘a particular.. a special...’. Thus brāhmaṇaviśeṣaḥ ‘[a particularity of brahmin, a specialty that is a brahmin:] a particular brahmin’; strīviśeṣaḥ ‘a particular woman’_{（奇女子）}; ratna-viśeṣaḥ ‘a special jewel, a particularly excellent jewel’._（异宝） Less frequently, viśeṣa may be used with this same meaning as the prior member of the compound.

Vocabulary

Agastyaḥ  pr. n.

apadeśaḥ  pretence, pretext a:parildeśaḥ lack of vexation

apsaias  f. nymph (of heaven) a:vighna  unhindered

aśokaḥ  aśoka-tree

ākula confused; 

ākulī~bhū grow confused;  p.p. in confusion

āyus  n. life

ārta  oppressed

āsanaṃ  sitting, seat

udghātin  having elevations, bumpy

kathitaṃ  thing spoken, talk, conversation

kaṣṭa tara  more grievous kāla-haiaṇaṃ  delay;

kāla-haraṇaṃ kṛ  (to) delay

kiyant  how much?

kṣudh  f. hunger

tantraṃ  administration

tapasvin  ascetic; pooi; wretched tapo-vanaṃ  ascetics’ grove

devatā  divinity, god

dhanaṃ  wealth

dhyānaṃ  meditation, meditating nayanaṃ  eye

patatrin  bird

panthan  m., irreg. noun _{(Appendix 2)} road, path, way

para  other; m. enemy, (hostile) stranger

parileśaḥ  vexation

parigrahaḥ occupation, occupying

parityāgaḥ  giving up, sacrificing; liberality

paścāt:tāpaḥ  [after-pain:] remorse

piṇḍapātin  m. mendicant

pracchāyaṃ  shade

pratyākhyānaṃ  rejection

prayogaḥ  (of play)

prasādaḥ  graciousness, favour; free gift; prasadi kṛ bestow [as free gift]

prārabdhaṃ  thing undertaken,enterprise

prāvīṇyaṃ  proficiency

bharataḥ  actor; player

bhūmi  f. ground; fit object (for); parityāga-bhūmi object of liberality, suitable recipient (of)

maṅgalaṃ  welfare, auspicious omen, good luck

manda  slow, slack; mandi~bhū slacken

manyu m. passion, anger

maraṇaṃ death

maru m. desert

Mānasaṃ  name of a lake

mohaḥ delusion

raśmi  m. rein, bridle

rahas  n. solitude, secrecy;

rahasi in secret

ripu  m. enemy

lavaḥ  fragment; lavaśo lavaśaḥ  iece by piece

lobhaḥ greed

viklava bewildered, distressed

vinīta disciplined, modest

viśeṣaḥ distinction; ifc. see chapter text;viśeṣa taḥ in particular

viśrambhaḥ confidence;

viśrambha-kathā/kathitaṃ confidential or intimate conversation

vṛṣṭi  f. rain

vegaḥ  haste, speed

vetasaḥ  cane, reed

veṣah  dress, attire

vyasanaṃ  vice; weakness; misfortune, misery

śālaḥ  sal-tree

Śrīparvataḥ  name of a mountain

saṃyamanaṃ  restraint, tightening

saṃjñā  signal

saṃbandhin  m. relative [by marriage]

sahadharmacārin  m. lawful husband

sahadharmacāriṇī  lawful wife

sāmājikaḥ  spectator

sāra  m./n. substance; property

su:caritaṃ  good deed

su:nayana  fair-eyed

sthalī  [dry] land

sthira firm;

sthirī~kṝ  make firm, sustain;

sthirī~bhū  be[come] firm

svī~kṛ  make one’s own, appropriate