目录  ：

一.查明信息

二.了解法院系统

三.州法院

四，联邦法院

五，阅读案件

六,判决提要

七，程序记录

八：维持原判

                                                        
一.查明信息 locating the information

查阅法律权威的第一步是通过描述性文字（象征一般信息分类的词语）
比如，你可以利用计算机查询，只要你能够进入LEXIS或西方法律网站的话。或者你可以到法律书架通过人工的方式查询法律、案件和其他种类你要查找的资料。
 有一些一般的信息来源，也称为次级信息，如《法学博士文集》（CORPUS ,JURIS SECUNDUM 简称C.J.S.）或《美国法学》（AMERICAN JURISPRUDCENCE .简称AM.JUR.）（两者都以百科全书的方式出现）它们都能使你找到特殊的案件。你可以通过百科全书的描述词（如，wrongful death ）在《美国法学》或《法学博士文集》的一般规定和在脚注里找到案件注解和对先前案件 解释的案件相关资料。要记住精装的更新资料也应查阅，你会找到和使用以前的判决。你还可以查阅其他类型的材料。 如
词语和词组 ：一套百科全书的运用案件对法律词语和词组下定义：
联邦和州摘要：成册的载有精选的案例法摘要，可以通过西文键码和描述性词语找到
带批注法令书籍：在脚注里列出案例的法典书籍，如《美国法典评注》（United States Code Annotated [U.S.C.A]）
The first step in researching the legal authority in a jurisdiction is general search using descriptors [words that represent general categories of information ]You may conduct a search using a computer if you have access to LEXIS or Westlaw ,for example , Or you may conduct a manual search in which you go to shelves of law books and search for statutes . cases , and other types of legal authority that are on point [deal with the issue you are researching ]

 There are general information sources . also known as secondary sources .such as Corpus Juris  Secundum ( C.J.S) or American Jurisprudence [Am.Jur.] [both forms of legal encyclopedias] that will lead you to specific cases . You may search by word descriptors (e , g . “wrongful death “ )in the indices of the encyclopedias for references to specific sections in Am . Jur . or C.J. S . A general statement of the law is provided in the section , and case references interpreting prior cases and statutes are listed in footnotes . Be sure that you also check the pocket parts [updates that indicate the newest decisions ] . In addition . there are also softcover updates that should be reviewed or you may find and use out –of –date decisions . You can also check other types of materials such as

words and Phrases :an encyclopedic –type set that uses cases to define legal word and phrses ;

federal and state digests: volumes with extensive case law summaries that can be located using a West Key number

annotated statute books: code books with cases listed in footnotes ,such as United States Code Annotated [U.S.C.A]

 

二.了解法院系统
Understanding the Court System

为了阅读案件 和理解案件 记录， 了解美国法院系统的大体框架是必要的。当有一个作为或 不作为的诉讼原因（在联邦系统里称为救济请求）发生了，原告或受害方向有管辖权的法院提起控告。控告要求法院对事实进行审查。每一个遵循提交请求程序的原告都 能得到法院的受理，不论他或她的请求是否有价值。然而 ，审判法官大多数会立即驳回他们认为无意义的请求，或者可以在法院审理之前或甚至通过法院审判中的其他途径解决
 在民事案件中，作为一种权利， 败诉方可以上诉。 有权审理上诉的法院称为上诉法院。通常 这是中间级的上诉法院。因为大多数州和联邦系统实行三个审级。 既然事实由初审法院来决定，上诉法院只就法律适用问题审理。换句话说，问题变为初审法院是否理解并依据法律作出裁判。
下列表格可以帮助你对从一个法院移交到另一个法院的案例有一个直观感觉。
The following chart with help you visualize how the cases move from court to court

一级初审法院
Level 1 Trial Court
 二级上诉法院
 Level 2 Appellate
 三级终审法院

Level 3 Court of Last Resort
 
州系统：例如，田纳西州谢尔比县巡回法院State system: e. g  Circuit Court of Shelby County . Tennessee
 例如：田纳西州上诉法院 e.g. Court of Appeals of Tennessee
 例如：田纳西州最高法院 e. g .Supreme Court of Tennessee
 
联邦系统：特区法院
Federal system : District Court
 美国上诉法院 U. S . Court of Appeals
 美国最高法院 U.S .Supreme Court
 

In order to read cases and decipher case histories, it is necessary to understand the general framework often the American system . When a cause of action[(called claim for relief in the federal system often acts or omissions necessary to trigger a lawsuit) occurs ,the plaintiff , or injured party, files a complaint [petition] with the court having jurisdiction over the matter . The petition requests a review often of the facts by the court . Every plaintiff who follows the procedure for submitting a petition receives his or her day in court regardless of the merits of his or her claim. However, trial judges may almost immediately dismiss cases they deem to be frivolous .or the matter may be settled out of court prior to or even during the actual trial of the case itself

 In a civil case . the losing party may appeal at least once as a matter of right . The court that has power to hear that appeal is called the appellate court. Normally this is the intermediate appellate court since most states and the federal system have three-tiered system . Since the facts are considered to have been determined by the trial court , the appellate court will only hear questions law . In other words , the question becomes whether the trial court understood and acted and in a accordance with the law in the jurisdiction

The following chart with help you visualize how the cases move from court to court

三.州法院State Courts

五十个州的每一个州法院和几个管辖区都有自己的系统，因此上面的表格和下面的解释只是一个概况。
第一级：初审法院
1.也称为有一般权限的法院、记录法院， 或有最初管辖权的法院
2.原告诉被告：约翰逊诉普列尼科夫
3.事实问题：发生了什么？
证据向陪审团展示：陪审团作出裁决
4.法律问题：被告的行为合法还是不合法？
法院主持审判，向陪审团解释法律，作出裁决
5.败诉方在权在下面级别提出上诉
第二级：上诉法院
中间级的上诉管辖
2.上诉人诉被 上诉人或请求诉被告
败诉方诉在前一审判中的胜诉方或有时根据初审法院指定被 上诉方诉上诉方
上诉法院只考虑法律问题
有偏见的错误—退回重新审判：全案重审
改变原来的判决---支持上诉人：即在初级法院的败诉方获胜
确认初级的判决 –支持被上诉人：即第一级审判中的胜诉人
这一级审判的上诉常常是由更高一级的法院受理
第三级：州最高法院
上诉权限或法院最后救济
上诉人和被上诉人/请求者和被告
除非与美国宪法或联邦法相冲突， 否则就没有上诉呆能
州最高法院是州法律的最终裁决者
Each of the fifty states and several territories has its own system so that chart above and the explanations below are very generalized overviews.

 Level 1. Trial Court

1.Also referred to as the court of general jurisdiction , the court of record , or the court of original jurisdiction

2.Plaintiff versus defendant :Johnson v . Pletnikoff

3.Issues of fact : what happened?

Jury is presented with evidence and renders verdict

4Issues of law : was the defendant’s action legal or illegal?

Judge presides over case . instructs jury on law , enters judgment

5.The losing party has appeal as a matter of right to the next level?

Level 2. Appellate Court

1.Intermediate appellate jurisdiction

2.Appellant versus appellee or petitioner versus respondent

Losing party versus winning party in the previous trial or sometimes apppellee versus appellant depending on the trial court designation

3.Only issues of law may be considered by the appellate court

A .prejudicial error ---remand for new trial . start over

B. reverse trial decision –judgment for appellant ; loser in Level 1 becomes winner

C. affirm trial court decision ----judgment for appellee; winner in Level 1 stays winner

An appeal from this level is normally at the discretion often next higher court

Level 3,State Supreme Court

Appellate jurisdiction or the court of last resort

Appellant and appellee /petitioner and respondent

Unless there is a conflict with U.S .Constitution or federal law . no appeal is possible

The state supreme courts are the final arbiters of state law

四．联邦法院 Federal Courts

The federal courts are divided into eleven geographic circuits . plus a circuit for Washington .D.C . [District of Columbia ]and a federal circuit . 28. U.S. C .$41 gives the jurisdictions 联邦法院分为11个地区的巡回法院，再加华盛顿特区（哥伦比亚特区）巡回法院和一个联邦巡回法院《美国法典》第41卷第28条规定了他们的权限
.Number and composition of circuits (巡回法院的组成和数量)

The thirteen judicial circuits of the United States are constituted as follows :

美国十三个巡回法院的组成如下
Circuits
 Composition
 
District of Columbia
 District of Columbia
 
First

 

 
 Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Puerto Rico, Rhode Island
 
Second
 Connecticut , New York ,Vemont
 
Third

 

 
 Delaware , New Jersey , Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia
 
Fourth

 
 Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia
 
Fifth

 
 District of the Canal Zone , Louisiana , Mississippi, Texas
 
Sixth

Seventh

 
 

 Kentucky , Michigan ,Ohio, Tennessee

Illinois , Indiana, Wisconsin
 

 
Eighth

 

 
 Arkansas ,Iowa , Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota

South Dakota
 
Ninth

 

 
 Alaska, Arizona, California, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Washington , Guam, Hawaii
 
Tenth

 
 Colorado Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Utah ,Wyoming
 
Eleventh
 Alabama, Florida, Georgia
 
Federal
 All Federal judicial districts
 

The following chart gives an overview of the structure of the federal courts and the various types of opinions the U.S .Supreme Court may issue

下面的图表美国联邦法院机构概略和美国最高法院可以作出的几种判决意见
Level ：U.S District Court
 
1.Made up of trial courts of original jurisdiction :ninety –four districts (including the District of Columbia and the territories
 
2.One judge and , if desired , a jury
 
3.Appeal as a matter of right
 
Level 2.U.S .Courts of Appeal
 
1.Thirteen courts of appellate jurisdiction in the various circuits
 
2.Bank (also referred to as a panel )of three judges
 
3.Appeal to U.S. Supreme Court only via petition for writ of certiorari

(request to the U.S .Supreme Court for review )
 
Level : 3. U.S. Supreme Court
 
Nine members

Nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate ; may serve for life
 
Appellants must petition for writ of certiorari ---ask the Court to hear the appeal

Certiorari (cert .) granted if four members vote to hear the case

Cert ., denied if less than four members vote to hear the case
 
Opinion types

Per curiam  opinioin [unanimous decision ]

Majority opinion [opinion shared by the majority ]

Example :6-3 decision –all six justices agree on one opinion

plurality opinion [final outcome agreed to by majority but for differing reasons

Example “6-3 decision –two justices write one concurring opinion . three justices write another concurring opinion , one justice writes her own opinion , and three justices dissent

concurring opinion [agree with the majority decision for different reasons

dissenting opinion [opinion given by a justice not agreeing with the majority ]

No appeal is possible

Supreme Court decisions are binding in all jurisdictions in the United States . however , the Supreme Court may overrule its own earlier decisions .
 
第一级：美国特区法院
 
1.由有初管辖权的初审法院组成：有94个区（包括哥伦比亚特区）
 
2.一位法官，如果需要的话，还有一个陪审团
 
3.有上诉的权利
 
第二级：美国上诉法院
 
1.不同巡回区的13个上诉法院
 
2.三位法官组成的小组（又称为审判小组）
 
3，只有通过调卷令才能向美国最高法院上诉（请求美国最高法院审议）
 
第三级：美国最高法院
 
九位法官：
通常由总统提名， 参议院任命，可以终生担任
 
上诉人必须请求调卷令---要求最高法院受理上诉
如果有四位法官表决同意则可以受理案件
少于四位同意则不予以受理
判决种类
A 一致意见
B，大多数意见
例如：六对三的判决---其他的六位法官赞同一种意见
C 多数意见（大多数人同意最终结果，但所持理由不一样
例如：六对三判决 ---两位法官写一个同意意见，三位法官另写一同意意见，一位法官写自己的意见， 另有三位法官不同意
D 。附合意见（对多数意见表示同意，但出于不同理由
E，反对意见（有一位法官作出的不同意多数看法意见）
没有上诉的可能
最高法院判决对美国的所有的法院有约束力。但是，
最高法院可以推翻它早期的判决。
 

五．阅读案件 Reading the Case

在找到你要找的案件之后，有必要进一步地阅读以决定它是否对回答你提出的问题的提供先例有帮助。 如果未经学习，初看报告的案例是非常叫人迷惑的，但是，当把握了一些基本的结构性的概念，研究者会发现案件的编排方式是，在有限的时间内提供最大数量的数据。
所给信息的顺序和性质通常按照西主出版公司采用的系统的方式排列，西方出版公司是重要的法律报告出版者，从因特网上获得的案件通常没有判决提要，而是直接进入判决意见。 从西方出版公司案件简明阅读选出的批注可以试图归纳出最重要的信息。 因此，我们来看看来自西方出版公司的“美国诉怀特“这个刑事案件

After locating a case in your jurisdiction , it is necessary to take a closer look to determine if it will prove helpful in answering your research question and providing precedent . To the uninitiated ,cases appearing in any of the reporters can at first seem very confusing 。However, once a basic organizational concepts are mastered , the researcher will appreciate that the cases are arranged in a way that provides the maximum amount of data in the minimum amount of time

The order and nature of information given usually follow the same or a similar format based on a system used by West Published , the primary legal reporter publish Cases obtained from the Internet will not normally have headnotes but will go immediately into the opinion . Headnotes from West’s simplify reading of the case because they attempt to summarize the important information . So let’s look at U.S. v. White , 552F .2d 268 (8th Cir, 1977 ), a criminal case from a West publication

Headnote 判决提要
当事人 The Parties

这一部分包括当事人的名称、当事人的身份(原告、被告等)，审判记录案件的法院的名称、判决的日期。在下面的图表中，我们印制了一个实际的判决提要，左边一栏是垂直排列的右边是对左边一栏每一行的解释。
This section includes the names of the parties , identification of parties (plaintiff \defendant .etc)an identification if the court in which the record case was heard and the date of the opinion . In the following chart . we’ve printed an actual headnote  as it would appear in its vertical format in the left column and explanations of each of the lines in the right

UNITED STATES of American ,Appellee
 Pros`ecution
 
v
   Versus
 
David Lee WHITE . Appellant
 Defendant
 
No.76-2047
 Docket Number

The ocurt’s system for finding the case in its files
 
United States Court of Appeals ,
 The court hearing the case
 
Eighth Circuit
 The federal circuit
 
Submitted March 24..1977
 Date appeal filed
 
Decided April 6.1997
 Date decision made
 

 程序记录 Procedural History

程序记录是关于法院对案件怎样处理的一个简单的叙述。这一部分也包括审查的理由以及对先前法院的判决。还有一行表明法院对案件的最终解决（法院对案件的裁决）。我们已经把程序记录的不同的解释性陈述加成粗体字
The procedural history is a brief recitation of what the courts have done with this case This section also includes the basis for review and an abbreviated recitation of the previous court ‘s holding . There is also a single line indicating the court’s disposition of the case [what the  court decided to do with the case ] We have added explanatory statements in bold to the various sections of the procedural history

 被告被美国内布拉斯加州特区法院首席法官沃伦 K 鲍姆定罪为跨州运输一辆被偷的汽车（先前的法院裁定---特区法院）。他上诉了。 上诉法院认为有足够的证据支持初审法院的认定，即被告明知车是被偷的， 是他导致汽车跨越州际线运输的事实发生（被告上诉暗示的理由---------没有足够的证据支持低级法院的判决）
维持原判（上诉法院对案件的处理）
Defendant was convicted in the United States District Court for the District of Nebraska, Warren K Urbom. Chief Judge , of interstate transportation of a stolen motor vehicle [previous court’s holding ---the District Court ] , and he appealed . The court of Appeals held that the evidence was sufficient to support the trial court’s find`     ing that defendant knew the vehicle was stolen and that he caused it to be transported across state lines [basis for defendant’s appeal implied –insufficient evidence to support lower court’s decision ]

Affirmed [Court of Appeals ‘ disposition of the case ]