[概述]中国传统文化深刻地影响着中国社会关系的各个层面，包括家庭、社区、学校等。本篇简要介绍至今仍影响着中国社会各个层面的社会文化习俗。  
      1、在中国社会里主要团体有哪些？What are the principal cohesive groups in Chinese society?  
       China is the only country with a civilization that stretches back continuously some five thousand years. The principal cohesive (凝聚性的) groups in Chinese society today are family, school, work unit, and local community. The family is a key unit in the Confucian tradition, and children’s obedience (服从) to and respect for their parents is one of the principal virtues. This virtue is not an abstraction (抽象). It continues to play out on a daily basis. Adult sons and daughters demonstrate again and again that they are obedient to their parents and interested in their comfort and happiness. In the countryside, extended families are remarkably cohesive. Brothers, sisters, parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins and other relatives all live in the same vicinity (附近地区). Most Chinese have close relationships with the members of their extended families.  
      Family-centered values and physical closeness combine to ensure that thee relationships are durable (经久的).    
      2、城里的老人与子女大多生活在一起吗？Do many elderly persons in cities live with their children?  
       In the countryside, most elderly people live with their married children. There is a popular saying: “Three generations living under one roof.” In cities, men commonly retire at the age of 60, and women at 55. The old-age pension (退休金) normally amounts to 75 percent of one’s pre-retirement (前退休) wage and provides independence and security. But urban senior citizens are welcome in the homes of their children for their baby-sitting service and household help. They thus enjoy both the new pension benefits and the extended-family traditon. Spendign their remaining years in happiness, they help with the housework, lok after grandchildren, and take up a hobby (业余爱好) like feeding pet birds or dogs, practicing Taijiquan, growing flowers, or going to teahouse to sip tea and enjoy endless conversation.    
      3、为什么中国几世同堂的家庭有很强的凝聚力？Why is the Chinese extended family so remarkably cohesive?  
       Chinese civilization has lasted 5,000 years. It was built on agriculture, and generatons of peasants were tied to the land on which they lived and worked. There was little mobility (流动性), eigher socially or geographically. Peasant families were cohesive units, with all members joining in the fieldwork. Some villages were a single family group; and the vast majority of the population lives close to their parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles and other relatives. Moreover, China has traditionally a seniority (长辈)-based, Confucian-oriented culture. Age is a symbol of experience and wisdom that grow with each passing year.   
       The ties between parents and children do not end even children grow up and get married. This tradition has been written into the family law, which says that children have a duty to support and assist their parents.    
      4、什么是“单位”？What is danwei?  
       Regardless of occupation, most modern urban Chinese belong to a danwei (work unit).  
      Strictly speaking, a danwei refers to a government office or an institution. But its use includes state-owned companies, factories and shops, hospitals, universities and other schools. A Chinese danwei is quite different from employing bodies in the West. A work unit in China assigns productive tasks and pays wages, but it also administers (掌管) all government regulations and policies related to its workers and their families, and it has responsibility for a variety of other aspects of their lives. For instance, the work unit is responsible for seeing that each worker’s family is housed adequately.  
      Larger work units typically own and operate a medical clinic as well as a daycare center; the largest ones also include primary and secondary schools.   
       Danwei administrators typically organize weekend outings and other forms of recreation for workers and their family members. When employees retire, the danwei gives them gistf during the Spring Festival; and when a worker dies, the danwei help with funeral arrangements and organizes memorial (追悼的) services.   
      5、中国学校“班集体”的含义是什么？ What is the meaning of “class collective” in Chinese schools?  
       In schools at any level, students remain members of the same small group of students not only during each school day and year, but also during the whole years that they attend a particular school. This is called the “class collective,” and this group constitutes (组成) a strong force for stability and conformity. Students in the collective attend classes together, organize other study activities, and participate as a unit in extracurricular (课外的) activities.   
       Every Chinese student belongs to a class collective, as assigned by school administrations on the basis of similarity of academic programs. Members of the class are expected to take care of each other as well as help each other in ordinary ways. Relationships among many Chinese classmates last indefinitely and are incorporated into their lifelong network of trusted friends.    
      6、邻里之间是什么关系？What is the relationship between neighbors?  
       The neighborhood is a relatively close social unit; and in some cases, it is difficult to differentiate clearly between the work unit and the neighborhood since workers commonly live in apartments located on the grounds of their work unit. The great majority of Chinese interact frequently with neighbors since they are likely to share the same courtyard and hallway, and in older buildings they may share a common bathroom and kitchen. Even in rural areas where housing is less crowded, the relationship between neighbors remains close; and maintaining harmonious relationships among neighbors is a matter of supreme concern. If a family dispute (争论) erupts (喷出), neighbors are likely to come in to mediate. In cities, neighborhood committees find jobs for unemployed people and try to patch up severely strained (紧张的) families.    
      7、你能简要讲讲传统的中国姓名吗？What can be noted about Chinese names?  
       Chinese family and given names are often confusing to the foreign visitor. There are 438 Chinese surnames, with 30 of these being double, clan names. The three most common family names are Zhang (张), Wang (王) and Li (李).   
       As given names, all Chinese traditionally received a “milk name (乳名)” at birth, a “book name (学名)” upon entering school, and a “formal name (大名)” upon marriage. Members of the family and very close friends normally used the “milk name.” Teachers and school friends used the “book name.” Both parents and relatives would also use the individual’s new “formal name” after marriage. In feudal days, scholars also commonly assumed a “studio name (斋号)” which they used in signing their works.    
      8、怎样称呼中国人？How are Chinese people addressed?  
       In China, the family name is followed by the given name. In the Western practice, it is just reverse (相反的). The Chinese sometimes reverse the order of their two names to confirm (证实) with the Western practice, and this may confuse Westerners who know that family names in China are traditionally placed first.  
       The Chinese themselves generally address each other by the family name and an appropriate (适当的) title, or by both the family and full given name together, with the family name first. The reason for this is that it helps distinguish all the Zhangs, Wangs, and Lis from one another.   
       It is also customary to address Chinese by their given name, using the title Miss, Mrs., or Mr. until persons become good friends and know one another’s nickname.  
      There are a large range of official titles and formal address forms in daily use, especially occupation (职业)-linked titles such as doctor, professor, and mayor. Younger members address older members according to their formal role within families such as older brother, cousin, sister-in-law and so forth.    
      9、怎样称呼中国妇女？How are Chinese women addressed? 
        A woman in China does not take her husband’s name after her marriage but keeps that of her father. The word, nushi (女士), translated as “Ms.” Is a formal title for an adult woman, married or unmarried. The Chinese seldom use nushi among themselves, but welcome its use by foreigners. You may address any young woman who is not likely to be married as xiaojie (小姐), translated as “Miss”; but this form of address is socially delicate in the case of women in their late twenties and early thirties because it is widely believed that by that age a woman should be married. If you do not know whether a woman of this age is married, address her as nushi.   
      10、“老”和“小”的含义是什么？What is the meaning of lao and xiao?  
       Older persons who have no work-related title are commonly called lao (老); younger persons with no identifiable (可认明的) name or job title may be addressed as xiao (小). Xiao may be translated as “young” or “junior”, lao as “old” or “senior.” Which term is used depends on the relation between the ages of the speaker and the person spoken to. The general rule is this: an older person calls a younger person with whom he and she is familiar (熟悉的) Xiao So-and-so; a younger person calls an older person Lao So-and-so. Xiao or lao may be used with persons of either sex, although lao tends to be used more frequently with male.    
      11、汉语有没有特别的问候语？What are typical Chinese greetings?  
       The most common form of greeting is ni hao (你好), usually translated as “Good day” but literally meaning “You are well.” The same greeting  phrased as a question (“How are you?”) is “Ni Hao Ma” (你好吗？). The response is usually nihao. You may use it on any occasion regardless of the time of day or the social status of the person you are greeting.   
       A most common greeting is “Ni Qu Nar” (你去哪儿, “Where are you going?”). Although its typical use occurs when passing another person on the street or in a building, it is not really a question because exact information is not being requested. It is similar to the greeting “How are you?” used in English speaking countries. You need give no precise information about your destination (目的). You may say vaguely, “I’m going there”, or gesture slightly with the head or hand in the direction in which you are moving.   
       Another common form of greeting is “Chi le Ma” (吃了吗, “Have you eaten?”). This greeting normally occurs around mealtimes; but it, too, is not a question as for information. It sounds like an invitation to join the other person for the coming meal. The way to response is to say either “Wo Chile” (我吃了, “I have eaten.”) or “Wo Kuai Chi Le” (我快吃了, “I am going to eat soon.”) depending on one’s situation.    
      12、传统的问候姿势是什么样子的？What gesture is used as a traditional Chinese greeting?  
       The handshake is now a common form of greeting among Chinese, but young Chinese tend simply to nod as a greeting. To some extent, this reflects the ever-increasing (越来越多地) paces of modern life.   
       The traditional greeting is to cup one’s own hands (left over right), chest high, and raise them slightly as asalute. In earlier times when greeting a person of superior (上级的) social standing, it was customary to raise the hands as high as the forehead and to execute a low bow. This tradition has a history of more than 2,000 years, but nowadays it is seldom used except in the Spring Festival or on other special occasions.    
      13、中国人一般用什么话题开始交谈？What are opening conversational topics in China?  
       Opening topics tend to be personal. Between strangers, a typical opening question might be “Ni Zai Nar Gongzuo” (你在哪儿工作, “Where do you work?”) or “Ni Gan Shenme Gongzuo” (你干什么工作茧自缚, “What’s your job?”).  
      Between persons known to each other, initial questions are likely to be about the other person’s family life, especially about his or her children; but some Chinese feel uneasy about going into detail about a husband or wife.   
       Another good conversation starter is to ask where the other person was born and then talk about each other’s hometown. There are many possibilities in this case. One can follow up by asking about the town’s location, the dialect, the cuisine, regional customs, etc. These topics are safe in the sense that they are unlikely to lead to any kind of cross-cultural (跨文化的) misunderstanding (误解).   
       At present, the topic of weather is popular because it is completely impersonal (非个人的). One may begin a conversation by mentioning some items in the daily news, discussing a sporting or entertainment event, or commenting on a recent event.   
      14、在时间使用方面中国有什么传统模式？What are traditional time-use patterns in China?  
       In the Western practice, visitors are expected to arrive on time; punctuality (严守时间) is important. In China, one surprise that a foreigner is likely to encounter is that a Chinese visotor may sometimes arrive early—not two or three minutes early, but fifteen minutes or more. This demonstrates respect for the host. As a relationship grows warmer over subsequent days and weeks, however, a person may arrive less and less early, until, finally, he/she settles into the standard pattern, arriving more or less on time.   
       In the countryside, one may arrive at a friend’s house without prior notice and may enter without waiting to be admitted. One may simply walk in, perhaps calling out the name of the person being sought. Homes are open to friends at any time.   
       Home phones and cellular (多孔的) phones has increased dramatically (戏剧性地) in China, so unannounced (未经宣布的) visits have become less common in cities. Nonetheless, one may visit a close friend at his or her office without prior notice at almost any time.    
      15、中国人和西方人在日常告别时有什么不同习惯？    What is the difference in daily farewells between Chinese and western people?  
       In some western countries, a visitor may state that he/she must depart soon, but will not leave immediately. One may continues a conversation or shared activity for several minutes or perhaps even as much as an hour. However, when a Chinese thinks it is time to leave, he/she announces that fact and immediately prepares to depart.   
       The western visitor who intends to depart may explain that something in his/her own personal situation compels the departure. Someone may say, for example, “I’ve got to study  for my chemistry test tomorrow, so I’d better be going.”  
      When a Chinese offers a reason for leaving, it is unlikely to be related to his/her personal situation. What one usually says is often related to the other person’s needs, such as, “I won’t take up any more of your time” or “I’m sorry that I’ve wasted so much of your valuable time.”  
       As a western leaver is actually leaving, the host accompanies him/her to the door and may even step otside to offer a farewell wave as the visitor goes away.  
      However, a Chinese host commonly accompanies a guest out of the door and for some distance, while continuing to talk. The distance that the host accompanies a guest is a sign of the respect shown by the host.    
      16、中国人是如何接受赞美的？How do Chinese respond to a compliment?  
       Chinese is unlikely (不太可能的) to respond to a compliment with thanks or any other acknowledgement (致谢) of its validity. One rather responds with a certain mood of self-depreciation. For instance, if a foreigner says to his/her interpreter (译员), “You English is very good,” a typical reply is bu hao, bu hao (不好，不好) or na li na li (哪里，哪里), meaning “Oh, no! My English is poor.”  Chinese expressions of modesty (谦逊) can be seen everywhere. When one is invited to a Chinese home for dinner, one finds the table overflowing (使胀满) with six to eight dishes, beautifully presented.  
      But host or hostess is likely to say, “We hope you won’t mind joining our simple meal. We are not good at cooking, so we have only prepared a few dishes this evening.” Chinese habitually say things to suggest that their creations, family members or themselves are of small value. This may lead you to conclude that you should offer no compliments to Chinese acquaintances. But that is not correct. Chinese like to receive compliments just like anyone else; they merely respond to them differently.    
      17、你可以告诉我一些中国人表现谦虚的其他方式？What are other byhavioral features of Chinese modesty?  
       Traditional Chinese values require a person who wishes to make a favorable impression to avoid beign self-assertive (自作主张的). Consequently it is wise to be modest about ow personal ability and experience. When Chinese meet for the first time in a social situation, they tell each other their names and identify their work units; but they seldom reveal their titles or positions in their work units. It is unusual for a Chinese to list his/her title or similar information below the signature (签名). Now, Chinese increasingly use business  cards that include such information. Cards are exchanged at many social gatherings.   
       Being a good listener is considered good manners. Young Chinese listen to their elders and speak little, thus showing modesty and good manners. In the same way, subordinates show respect to their supervisors (管理人).   
       During conversations, Chinese can keep silence for a much longer time than Westerners; and juniors wait for their seniors to finish speaking. Discomfort occurs if a junior speaks out of turn.   
       When a large number of Chinese prepare themselves for a group photograph. All understand that the front row, especially the centerfront, is the place of honor. Even senior persons try to remain away from the front row in attempt to display proper modesty. After some good-natured scuffling (扭打) and earnest appeals from juniors, the situation resolves itself properly.    
      18、你能够再谈一些有关谦逊的特点吗？Could you tell me more about the features of modesty?  
       Valuing modesty is part of a centuries-old Chinese tradition. We don’t know the origin of many behavioral (行为的) practices associated with modesty; but honorific (尊敬的) and self-deprecating (自贬的) terms have been in use for over 2,000 years ago. Many set phrases and words have been used to demonstrate an absence of self-centeredness (自我中心) or personal assertiveness (自信). For example, bi ren (鄙人, your humble servant) was in common use for centuries and how is still heard occasionally. “My immature (未成熟的) opinion ix… (我的不成熟的意见是……)” which is for someone’s proposal even though that proposal is actually well thoughtout, and a well-furnished apartment is likely to be described as “an apartment with poor conditions.”  
       To enhance harmony and avoid friction (摩擦), Chinese are taught at an early age to keep themselves in check, be tolerant of others and defer (听从) to the desires of the family as determined by the senior generation.    
      19、什么是“关系”？What is Guanxi?  
       The word guanxi (关系) has no precise English equivalent. It is literally translated as “relationship” or “connection”; and technically (技术上), it stands for any type of relationship. In the Chinese business world, however, it is also understood as the network of relationships among various parties that cooperate together and support one another. The Chinese business mentality is very much “You scratch (搔) my back, I’ll scratch yours.”  Developing and nurturing guanxi requires time and resources. Chinese and Western cultures conduct business differently, even if, on the surface, transactions (办理) seem the same. Chinese prefer to work with persons they know and trust. This relationship extends between companies and also between individuals at an ongoing personal level. With manners, diligence, courtesy (礼貌) and goodwill, one constructs his/her own web of supporting relationships.   
       Guanxi can take on many forms. It does not have to be based on money. It is completely legal in their culture and not regarded aas bribery (行贿) in any way.  
      Trustworshiness of both a company as a whole and individual is an important component, and following through on business promises is an essential indicatioin.    
      20、为什么“面子”对中国人非常重要？Why does “face” have a high importance for Chinese?  
       Sociologists (社会学家) know that the concept of face is a universal concern of human beings, but it has particular social significance (重要性) for Chinese.  
      There is a Chinese proverb that says, “A person needs face as a tree needs bark.” There are several reasons. Over the centuries, many people in China have seldom moved away from the location of their birth. They spend their entire life in the company of the same friends, neighbors and relatives. Face-saving behaviors are necessary to maintain harmony, avoid conflicts (冲突) and protect the integrity of the group.   
       Confucius emphasized that human beings exist in interactive relationships with others. According to his thought, a senior party is assumed to have authority (权力) with respect to his/her juniors; the junior party, in turn, was bound to be respectful and obedient toward his/her seniors. These obligations are expressed in the Chinese virtue known as li (礼), which means “right conduct in maintaining one’s place in the hierarchical order” and is currently used by the average Chinese to mean manners. One important way to be acceptable is to respect and accept each person’s need to maintain his/her face. Loss of face is not a matter of personal embarrassment; it also threatens to disrupt the integrity (正直) of the group and destroy long-established relationships. .  
       21、什么是“缘分”？What is yuanfen?  
       Yuanfen (缘分) is a Buddhist-related concept that refers to the predetermined (先已决定的) principle that dictates a person’s positive relationships and encounters such as the affinity (本性) among friends or lovers. It is always used in conjunction (结合) with two persons, and it can be defined broadly as the binding (有约束力的) force that links two persons together in any relationship. Some believe that the driving force behind yuanfen are the actions done in previous reincarnation to emphasize a meant-to-be relationship. One may exclaim: “It is yuanfen that has brought us together!”  
      When one encounters another repeatedly in various situations that seem beyond coincidence (巧合), one can refer to yuanfen. On the contrary, when two persons know each other but never get a chance to meet face-to-face, it can be said that their yuanfen is too weak. Often yuanfen is said to be the equivalent of “fate” or “destiny.” However, these words do not have the element of the past playing a role in deciding the outcome (结果) of the future.    
      22、什么是“磕头”？What is ketou?  
       Ketou (磕头) is the act of deep respect shown by kneeling and bowing so low as to touch the head to the ground. Ke means “bump” or “knock” and tou means “head.”  
      Traditionally, the formal Chinese ketou included three kneelings nd nine prostrations (倒下；平伏).   
       Traditional Chinese etiquette contained situations in which ketou was performed. According to imperial Chinese protocol, ketou was performed before the emperor. During the Spring Festival, younger family members would ketou to members of each generation above them. At a wedding ceremony, the bride and bridegroom had to ketou to everyone from the eldest down to their parents in order. During ancestor worship services and the Bright nd Clear Festival, ketou was also often performed. People lit incense (香), and the eldest male led the ancestor worship. People then did ketou or bowed. Afterwards, they gave food and wine to the ancestors, and burnt paper money. In Buddhist or Taoist monasteries, ketou is often performed before Buddhist or Taoist statues.    
      23、“客气”的重要性是什么？ What is the importance of keqi?  
       Ke means “guest” and qi means “behavior,” but when these characters are used together to form keqi (客气), they mean a lot more than “guest” and “behavior.”  
      As used to describe behavior, keqi means politeness, courtesy, modesty, humility, understanding, well-mannered behavior and so on. All of these definitions are natural in the Chinese cultural context (上下文). Being humble refers not only to person of humility; it also means downplaying (贬低) the status of one’s family, friends, employer, etc. The importance of keqi also indicates how sensitive Chinese are to any sign of arrogance or haughtiness (傲慢). Chinese are expected to demonstrate keqi in all of their actions and especially toward foreign guests. As social conditions continue to change, the force of keqi is diminishing (减少); but it is still discernible in the behavior of all Chinese, including overseas Chinese.    
      24、中国人在习惯上怎样接受礼物？ How do the Chinese traditionally accept a gift?   
       The traditional Chinese practice in figt-exchange is quite different from that of Westerners. Chinese are taught as children that in order to show modesty and avoid any suggestion (暗示) of personal greed, they should decline two or three times when offered a gift. Usually when a gift is offered, thereis then a seesaw (前后动的，交互的) battle in which the gift is offered and refused, offered and refused but finally accepted with appropriate expression of appreciation. The gift is supposed not to be opened on the spot; it is tucked (把……塞进) away in a pocket or left on a table until the giver has departed. Only then is the pareel opened. One interpretation of this practice is that the receiver is preserving the face of the giver by avoiding any possibility of evaluating (估……的价) the gift in the presence of the giver and others. Such behavior is simply the Chinese manner.    
      25、在公共场所中国人有什么交往的规矩？What is the etiquette (规矩，礼节) for public places?   
       Chinese get used to being pushed and buffeted (连续冲击) when they use public transportation or go shopping in public stores. They accept this as normal behavior without expecting apologies. At the same time, the Chinese have been conditioned for centuries to ignore “outsiders,” meaning anyone not a member of their family, work unit, or cirlce of friends. They thus behave more or less as if others do not exist.