[概述]中国画简称“国画”，是中国各族人民共同创造的传统绘画。中国画属于东方绘画体系，有鲜明的中华民族特色。本篇介绍的内容是源远流长的中国画及其艺术特点。  
      1、中国画是何时起源的？ What is the origin of traditional Chines painting?  
       When did Chinese painting start? Who started Chinese painting? It is hard to trace it back to its roots. For thousands of years, this issue has puzzled (使迷惑) historians (历史学家) and scholars in the field of the history of Chinese arts.  
      Many historians think that character writing and painting have the same origin. In ancient China, characters began as simple drawings of natural objects—trees, water, mountains, horses and human beings.  
      They were engraved on pottery, bones, bronzes or mountain rocks. Some pottery vessels were painted with decorative patterns or human faces, animals and plants. Experts believe that these pictographic symbols may be the earliest forms of Chinese written characters.  
      According to this view, these symbols constituted primitive Chinese painting and date from the Neolithic Period, around 6,000 to 7,000 years old ago. Records of Famous Paintings of Dynasties ( 《历代名画记》 ) by Zhang Yanyuan (张彦远) of the Tand Dynasty said that Chinese painting originated in the legendary period and that pictographic symbols unified painting and character writing. In his view, only when pictographic symbols and character-writing split, did Chinese painting start to become an independent art.    
      2、你如何理解传统中国画艺术？ How can you understand the art of traditional Chinese painting?  
       Chiense painting is a pure art. It is lyrical (抒情诗般的) enough to stand on an equal footing with poetry and contemplative (沉思的) thought. It has incomparable (无可匹敌的) refinements (优雅) of design and reveals subtle insights into nature and human beings.  
      Painting in the traditional style involves essentially (实质上，本来) the same techniques as calligraphy. It is done with a brush dipped in black or colored ink; oils are not used. The line drawn by a brush has remined the core medium of Chinese painting throughout its history. Painters give ever-greater emphasis to the brush-line itself, taking it as their primary descriptive and expressive (表情丰富的) means.   
       In dynastic times, painting and calligraphy were the most highly appreciated arts in court circles and were produced almost exclusively by amateurs-aristocrats and scholar-officials-who alone had the sensibility and leisure to perfect the technique necessary for great brushwork. A piece of painting normally consists of the painting itself, calligraphic writing and seal stamps. As with calligraphy, paintings by famous painters have been greatly valued throughout China’s history.  
      They are mounted on scrolls which can be hung or roled up, but some are done in albums (相簿) or on walls, lacquerwork, and other media (媒介物).    
      3、你能够简单介绍一下中国传统绘画历史吗？Can you give a brief introduction of the history of traditional Chinese painting?  
       Chinese painting originated in the remote period, dating back to 6,000 to 7,000 years ago. At the primitive stage, from the Shang and Zhou dynasties to the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, paintings decorated bronze ritual vessels and other bronze wares; and the concept of “beauty” was first applied, not to art, but to ancestral sacrifices.   
       Paintings on silk first appeared during the Warring States Period. But after the invention of paper in the 1st century A.D., silk was gradually replaced by this new, cheaper material.   
       Wall painting developed during the Qin and Han dynasties. Apart from wall paintings in palaces and temples, there were a great number of Chinese murals in the tombs of that period. During the Three Kingdom Period, the main subject of painting was Buddhist figures and paintings executed according to Taoist concepts.   
       Beginning in the Tang Dynasty, the landscape painting came to the fore. The purpose was not to reproduce exactly the appearance of nature, but to grasp an emotioni or atmosphere in such a way as to catch the “rhythm” of nature. In the Song Dynasty, landscapes of more subtle expression appeared. Emphasis was placed on the spiritual qualities of the painting and on the ability of the artist to reveal the inner harmony between man and nature.   
       The Yuan Dynasty is known for its outstanding ink-wash paintings. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, painting developed along two distince lines. One, represented by Wang Shimin (王时敏) and Wang Jian (王鉴), faithfully followed old masters. The other, represented by Zhu Da (朱耷) and the Yangzhou Schoool (扬州画派), emphasized the expression of personal feeling. The latter’s unique endeavors and appealing taste have been accepted by famous modern artist like Qi Baishi (齐白石), Xu Beihong (徐悲鸿) and Pan Tianshou(潘天寿).    
      4、谢赫“六法”讲的是什么？What is the meaning of the six rules by Xie He?  
       During the Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern dynasties, the enhanced interest taken in painting led to the development of art criticism. The six rules were formulated by Xie He of the Qi State for Chinese painting during the Southern Dynasty period. His first rule calls on the artist to imbue his painting with cosmic vitality and a sense of life, or “animation (生气) through vital rhythm (气韵生动)”, qi (气) being the vital force and stuff of man and the universe. Xie He’s second rule calls for “structural strength in the brushwork (骨法用笔),” demonstrating the vital link between painting and callilgraphy. It is larly in the quality of the artists’ brushwork that the Chinese look for an expression of their vital inspiration. The next three rules refer to composition. They include “fidelity (忠诚) to the object in portraying forms (应物象形),” “conformity to kind in applying colors (随类赋影),” and “proper planning in the placement of elements (经营位置).” The final rule demands the artists “copy pieces of the old masters (传移摹写).” This is a way of preserving old master pieces and at the same time providing training and discipline (纪律) for later artists.    
      5、什么是“文人画师”？What are “literati” painters?  
       Literati painters were amateurs. They painted as a means of self-expression, much the same way they wrote poetry; both forms were the inheritance (继承) of the Neo-Taoist era of the Six Dynasties. Many fewer literati were accomplished painters than poets; but there were always  many literati who painted on the side, while serving as scholar-officials.   
       Literati painting was conceived as mode through which the Confucian junzi (君子, noble person) expressed his ethical personality. It manifests concern little for technical showiness. Literati painters specialize in plain ink paintings, sometimes with minimal color. They emphasize the idea that the style with which a painter controls his brush conveys the inner style of his character. Brushstroke is seen as expression of the spirit more than matters of composition or skill in realistic depiction.   
       While literati poetry developed fully during the Tang Dynasty, painting did not become central to literati until later.  
      During the late Song, literati and academic painting become two distince streams. Interestingly enough, however although academic paintings were often far more skilled in technique, many felt—and still feel—that the “amateur” ink paintings of the literati are the highest form of art in China.    
      6、什么是“院画画师”？What are “academic” painters?  
       “Academic” painters were highly skilled craftsmen. Many were educated to some degree.  
      They used colors for realistic or highly conventional (习惯的) representations (代表) of people or things and they focused on spectacular, sometimes applying gold leaf, or other techniques. Their whole effort was aimed at achieving marvelous (令人惊叹的) effects. The imperial court employed some such men painters, and other academic painters made their way in the world by selling their paintings to wealthy patrons and customers. They were professionals, both in their virtuoso (行家里手的) skill and in their dependence on permanent (永恒的) employment as painters and on selling their paintings to live.   
       After many centuries, academic painting came to focus on human and animal figures as the most developed forms of visual art in ancient China. However, landscape painting entered a period of sudden development during the Tang and early Song dynasties; and academic painting took a new and different turn during the latter part of the Song Dynasty. Professional painters then began increasingly to explore smaller and more intimate forms of painting, even when depicting broad landscapes. In reducing the scale of their paintings, they also developed innovative (创新的) ways, using abbreviated lines and ink washes to represent landscape features which the Northern Song masters had rendered with intense detail. Although academic painters achieved simplicity with the use their fertile imagination and great effort, the skills they employed were more accessible (可接近的) to literati, who were, after all, masters of calligraphic brushwork.    
      7、书法对绘画有什么影响？What has been influence of calligraphy on painting?  
       Chinese calligraphy was a separate art form in ancient China, nd it exerted (用(力)) great influence on literati painting. Beginning with the period of the Six Dynasties (220—589), expressing oneself through distinctive written characters constituted an important characteristic of being a well-bred member of the elite. A number of men became famous for their fine calligraphy, and examples of their styles were preserved through carvings, which traced their brushstroke in stone. Over time, men of literary learning tried to master one or more of these classical styles and improve their unique individuality (个性) on them.  
      This medium of handwriting became an important way of expressing one’s nature and of reading the character of others.    
      8、元朝文人画有什么特点？What are the features of the literati painting of the Yuan Dynasty?  
       In 1279, the Yuan Dynasty unified China under Mongol rule. Chinese literati ultimately (最后) learned how to live with Mongol rule, and many members of the educated class cooperated in continuing the management of government along the Confucian lines of the traditional imperial state. Nonetheless, many members of the elite did not want to involve themselves with the ruling Mongols and they sought ways to avoid service. A certain number of these men devoted themselves to painting and established a tradition of literati visual art. The Yuan literati applied their control of brushwork to the development of a new perspective (透视的) on what art could achieve. The efforts at making things look realistic completely vanishes.  
      Mountains, trees, and grass are depicted with extreme simplicity, no care for relative size; and the sky is covered with writing.  
      The interest has shifted from the landscape to the painter; and painting became an act of reinterpreting (重新解释) nature, which is simply the focus for the painters’ self-expression.   
       This has amounted to a fundamental shift, and it is central to literati painting. Actually Chinese landscape becomes art not devoted to Nature itself. It is devoted to man’s response to Nature. Now it clearly becomes a means for expressing the artist’s unique self and perspective, reflecting one’s moral self-cultivation and stance towards society.   
       In addition, the use of name stamp became established at this time. The addition of stamped name impressionis, in itself an art, further enriched the artistic content of Chinese painting.    
      9、你对明代绘画知道多少？What is known about the painting of the Ming Dynasty?  
       During the Ming Dynasty, literati paintings were prized above academic paintings by most educated people who understood the goal of revealing the inner character of the painter and depicting of nature, man, or various objects in such ways as to communicating a sense of virtue, strength of purpose, or sensitivity towards the conditions of human life.   
       The most notable center for painting in the Later Middle Ming was Suzhou, where the Wu School (吴门画派) flourished (1460-1560). Designations (指定) like “Wu School” are Chinese classifications (分类) based on the artist’s residence, style and/or social status. One of the most famous of all literati painters was Shen Zhou (沈周, 1427—1509) who stood at the beginning of the Wu tradition. Although deeply influenced by Yuan Painting, he gradually developed a style of his own that conveyed genial warmth and a sense of ease and naturalness. Wen Zhengming (文征明, 1470—1559) studied painting under Shen Zhou.  
      He painted in many different styles during his long and productive life, and some of his paintings are influenced by painting styles which trace back to the Tang painting. The paintingso f these two masters became so important that they chose to focus their entire lives on the mastery of their art, rather than pursue government careers. In the increasingly urban and educated society of the Ming, these artists actually made considerable income from their work, either in the form of cash “gifts” or of other goods “traded” for their art.   
       Literati circles at the highest levels often included groups of close friends and painters. Often literati painters would present paintings to friends with an invitation to write poetry and short essays on them. In this way, paintings sometimes seem to become more group expressions than mere individual expressions of the painter, capturing an essential Confucian element of society.    
      10、清朝绘画有什么特点？What are the features of the painting of the Qing Dynasty?  
       Three principal groups of artists were working during the Qing Dynasty. The first is that of the traditionalists (传统主义者), orthodox painters who sought to revitalize (使恢复) painting through the creative reinterpretation of past models. Outstanding among these are four artists all named Wang (Wang Shiin, 王时敏; Wang Jian,  王鉴; Wang Hui, 王翚; and Wang Yuanqi, 王原祁). Wang Shimin and his friend Wang Jian (1598—1677) are the senior embers of this school, but they were outshone by their brilliant pupils: Wang Hui (1632—1717) and Wang Yuanqi (1642—1715).   
       The second group is that of the individualists, who practiced a deeply personal form of art. The most original work was done by men who refused to serve the new Qing Dynasty. One group of Ming loyalists lived in Anhui Province.  
      These artists emulated (同……竞争) Ni Zan (倪瓒, 1306—1374) for his minimalist (极简抽象派艺术家) compositions and “dry-brush” painting style features that became hallmarks (标志) of the so-called Anhui School (新安派). The other main group was the Nanjing Masters (金陵八家), which included Gong Xian (龚贤, 1618—1689), Fan Qi (樊圻, 1616—1694), and Ye Xin (叶欣, 1640—73).  
       The third group is that of the courtiers, officials and the professional artists who served at the Qing court. Two of the most outstanding artists of the early Qing period were descendants (子孙) of the Ming royal house: Zhu Da (朱耷, 1626—1705) and Zhu Ruoji (朱若极, 1642—1707), both of whom became bette known by their assumed names-Bada Shanren (八大山人) and Shitao (石涛).  
      Yangzhou’s mercantile elite supported a diverse array of artists who worked in two distinct pictorial traditions. One group of artists, later known as the “Eight Eccentrics (古怪的人) of Yangzhou (扬州八怪),” drew inspiration from the highly individualistic (个人主义的) works of Shitao.    
      11、中国绘画是怎样分类的？How can we classify traditional Chinese painting?  
       Chinese brush painting can be classified into three main categories: landscape painting, bird and flower painting, and figure painting. Each classification can be further divided according to painting techniques as follows?  
       Landscape painting  
        a. Boneless landscape. Instead of drawing out the outlines, colors are directly applied to creating the form.   
       b. Monochrome (黑白) ink landscape.   
       c. Light umber (棕土的) landscape. Umber and other light shades of colors are added to a landscape done primarily in ink.   
       d. Detailed with color. Outlines are carefully drawn to create precisely the forms; then rich colors are applied layer by layer. Gold may be added for outlining.   
        Figure painting  
        a. Detailed with color.   
       b. Outlining.   
       c. Freestyle (自由式的) sketch, or expressionistic (表现派的) drawing. Personal expressionism (表现主义) is valued in this kind of painting. Whether or not one creates precise forms is not important.   
       d. Wash. Light shades of colors are applied to a painting outlined in ink.   
        Bird and flower painting  
        a. Detailed with color.   
       b. Outlining. After outlines are drawn in ink, light ink washes are added sparingly (谨慎地) for highlighting (最突出(或最精彩)的部分).   
       c. Freestyle sketch.   
       d. Boneless method.   
       e. Flower-outlien and leaf-wash style.  
      Flowers (or a part of the painting) are outlined and filled with colors, while leaves are dotted or dabbed (轻涂) with washes.   
      12、中国传统绘画的技法是怎 样的？What are features of the techniques of the traditional Chinese painting?  The techniques of traditional Chinese painting are divided into meticulous (小心翼翼的) style (工笔) and freehand style (写意). The former requires great care and grace, with strict composition and fine elaboration. The effect is highly decorative. The latter style generalizes (归纳) shapes and displays rich brushwork and ink technique.   
       In traditional Chinese panting, lines play a decisive role in the formation of images; and variations in lines are determined, in the main, by the method of using brushes. Ink occupies an exceedingly (非常地) important psition in traditional Chinese painting, with black being the main color. The use of ink involves processes such as showing the shades and texture of rocks and mountains by light ink strokes and applying dots and coloring.   
       Images are primary. Brushwork and ink depict images; colors only enrich them. What gives ink-and-wash paintings their unique appeal is their use of darkness or light, density or dilution (稀释) to present the light and color of various objects. Special effect is formed through the interaction of water, ink and xuan paper.  
      Even a painting executed a long, long time ago still looks fresh and full of vitality today.   
       Traditional painting stresses the intrinsic (本身的) colors of the object, varying  the shades on the basis of the intrinsic colors. Its effect grows out of the content and is subordinate to the requirements of the theme. It can exaggerate to the fullest extent and boldly change the intrinsic colors of the object to bring out the theme and express the artist’s ideas or achieve an ideal artistic effect.  
      Color is mostly used after finishing the basic modeling with brushwork and ink.  
      It involves variations of brightness of the intrinsic colors; contrasting, harmonious relations among various intrinsic colors; and the coordination of brushwork and ink techniques.    
      13、中国传统绘画有哪些常用的表现形式？What are the regular forms of traditional Chinese painting?  
       The principal forms include hanging scrolls, albums of paintings, fan surfaces and long horizontal scrolls. Hanging scrolls are both horizontal and vertical. They are mounted and hung on the wall. The long horizontal scroll is also called a hand scroll. It is less than fifty centimeters high, but several to a hundred meters long. Pictures on long horizontal scrolls are not restricted as to time, whether seasons or decades; and they may include a hundred or even a thousand human figures in one painting. After being mounted, it can be appreciated section by section. Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival (《清明上河图》) is a famous horizontal scroll from the Song Dynasty (960—1279). It is 52.5 centimeters long.   
       For an album of paintings, artists paint on a certain size of xuan paper and then bind a number of paintings into an album, which is convenient (合宜的) for storage. The surfaces of both folding (可折叠的) fans and round fans are also painted. Before people had electric fans or air-conditioning, they used fans made of bamboo strips pasted with paper or silk. Artists painted the surface; and as time goes on, this has developed into a form of painting that has been handed down to the present day. Men use folding fans, usually made of paper, while women use round fans, generally of silk.    
      14、中国传统绘画和西方绘画的不同点有哪些？ What are some differences between traditional Chinese painting and Western painting?  
       In the West, the human form has been the point of central interest throughout most of history, from the sculpture of the Greeks through Medieval and Renaissance paintings of the Holy Family and the 17th and 18th century portraiture in the French and English schools. Landscape as a major theme emerged comparatively (比较的) late, in association with the Romantic Movement. In China it was otherwise. Landscape painting came to assume the highest place as the classical art par excellence. Although man was the main focus of philosophy, artists in ancient China from the eighth century or earlier found their inspiration in nature; and landscape painting was the most satisfying way to represent nature as a whole, feel a sense of communion (融洽关系) with nature, and know oneself as a part of an orderly cosmos.   
       The other important difference is related to the viewpoint and perspective of the painter in Western and Chinese art.  
      The eye of the Western artist takes in the scene from the level of an average-sized man, five or six feet above the ground.  
      The Chinese artist works from a raised viewpoint, on a hillside opposite the scene.  
      He has no fixed viewpoint; and that his gaze can rove (徘徊) at will, both horizontally and vertically.   
       Classic Western art works are executed in oil on canvas (油画布), whereas Chinese paintings are done by means of water-soluble ink on silk or highly absorbent (能吸收(水、光等)的) paper. When oil paints are employed, it is possible to paint out a portion of the canvas and redo it in a new version; but with ink and watercolors, the stroke once drawn is beyond recall and can not be altered.