英语专业毕业论文写作指导
要点一:确定主题
1. 认真阅读理论书籍或原著
阅读过程中应做笔记。在阅读过程中,及时地记下自己的想法,因为第一印象往往是最好的。笔记应简短,较详细的笔记应在研读作品之后来写。笔记是写论文的一种思考形式与结果,当你的思路逐渐集中于一个论题,这时笔记的内容自然会变得更集中,将它们按一定条理组织起来,就可能成文。
2. 酝酿论点
当你觉得自己有什么要说的了,并且你的笔记逐渐指向一个议题时,你就可以归结出你的论点(thesis),即你的毕业论文的中心思想。
3. 构思
构思也可以说是拟写提纲的过程。上述罗列的这些名词,不能作为一篇毕业论文的正式提纲,必须在此基础上加以充实,使它变得更加详尽具体。提纲就是论文的基本框架,有了它,接下来的工作主要是从你的笔记中选择合宜的资料,去充实各个细目。
4. 确定标题
确定标题时需要注意以下两点:
① 标题范围一定不能太大,如“论中西文化差异”“英美文学史”等都太大,以学科或书籍命名的标题也过于大,如“《简爱》艺术手法剖析”“经济学的基本理论”等也不行。好的论文标题是分析某个方法或原理在某一个领域的应用,或某篇小说的某一点艺术手法分析,如“论XXX中的反讽写作手法”“论XX行业的营销渠道创新”。
② 标题要新颖、完整简洁。研究的内容要有意义,不要研究毫无意义的内容,也不要研究先前被写烂了的话题。标题一定要完整,要涵盖整篇论文的内容,但不能过于冗长;标题不要写句子,应该是短语。如“On...”“The functions of...”“An Analyze of...”。
5. 撰写初稿
在着手写初稿的过程中,提纲会引导作逐条逐点地写下去,但不能完全让它框死。写的过程中,你有了新的想法,对于论证你的论点又有益,就应当毫不犹豫将它写进去。初稿须经反复修改才能定稿,因此在写初稿的时候不要斤斤计较标点、用词、语法等小问题,以免干扰你的思路。第一稿完成之后,首要的是删去不相干的内容,并补充必要的东西,使你的论证更清楚、更有说服力。
要点二:毕业论文的组成
1. 标题
标题需要有中英文,可以有总标题和副标题,总标题应能提出问题、揭示内容和限定范围。副标题应明确、简练而新颖。
2. 目录
目录应全面,可分多级标题;为便于查阅,各级标题都应包括在目录内;目录后还可列有图表清单、缩略语清单等。目录一定要简洁明了,本科生论文最好一页写完,最多不能超过两页。
3. 摘要、关键词
摘要是全文的缩影,应简短而凝练,一般300词即可。英语毕业论文的摘要应包含一个与英文提要相对应的中文提要。摘要主要内容:本人试图探讨...,从以下几个方面探讨,本文运用了...方法或...理论进行探讨,本文得出了什么结论。
4. 正文
论文正文由以下三部分组成:
1)绪论(introduction)可以是开篇的一个独立部分,也可以是论文的第一章,其中应对论文的论题、主旨、理论根据、研究目标、论文纲要等必要内容,做一个清楚明确的说明。而理论概述是对论文所依据的理论进行的阐述,可涉及主要理论和相关理论,以及就论文所研究的问题,目前理论研究达到的程度。理论概述可以独立成篇,也可包括在绪论部分中,可视情况而定。研究方法也可在引论中加以阐述。除说明研究方法之外,还应说明所采用的方法的适用性、必要性和科学性。
2)本论(body)是对毕业论文提出的论点(thesis)加以论证。进行个案研究,必须给出研究实例,实例应当是客观的、适用的、按照科学的方法选择的,并对选择的方法加以说明。分析讨论应层次清晰,可以针对前述个案,也可在不需要具体实例的情况下,对所提出的问题进行分析讨论。
3)结论(conclusion),可以是论文的最后一章,应在结论中对分析讨论及其结果作扼要的叙述,说明研究的主要发现、其理论和/或实践意义、研究的局限、对进一步研究的建议等。
5. 引文
对文章中的词语、内容或引文的出处所做的说明。
引文的内容包括:1)难以理解的名词、概念、人物、事件;2)引用他人原著中的一段话或者一个完整的句子;3)不是原原本本地引用原文,而是用自己的语言阐述他人的某个观点或材料;4)引文和作者的语言融为一体,连成一气。
注释的内容有(1)阿拉伯数码序号;(2)作者;(3)篇(著作)名;(4)版次;(5)出版单位;(6)年、月、日;(7)卷(期)页。
注释的位置一般是页脚。
6. 参考文献
凡论文中所引用、引述、或以其他方式参考过的文献资料均应列于参考文献,应分别列出英文文献和中文文献,英文文献的排列以作者姓氏首字母为序(姓放在前,名在后,中间用逗号隔开),不用加序号。中文文献的排列以作者姓氏汉语拼音首字母为序。英文参考文献在前,而汉语参考文献在后。
7. 鸣谢
除向对论文有过具体指导帮助的人员致谢外,还应向论文所使用的各种文献的作者表示感谢。
要点三:如何写摘要
论文标题应揭示研究的主题信息,而摘要则是读者的第一个信息来源,摘要应简要地描述论文的主题、研究的目的、研究的方法、主要研究发现、研究的结论和所带来的启示。摘要应具有前瞻性和预见性。
摘要一般应在主体毕业论文完成后才撰写。毕业论文摘要应有一个严格的结构。摘要应包括以下内容:
1)论文研究的主题/范围是什么?
2)作者提供哪些背景信息?
3)本研究的目的是什么?
4)研究是如何进行的?
5)有哪些主要研究发现?
6)研究所带来的启示是什么?
请阅读以下摘要:
Speaking and Writing in the University: A Multidimensional Comparison
Abstract
(1) The dozens of studies on academic discourse carried out over the past 20 years have mostly focused on written academic prose (usually the technical research article in science or medicine) or on academic lecture. (2) Other registers that may be more important for students adjusting to university life, such as textbooks, have received surprisingly little attention, and spoken registers such as study groups or on-campus service encounters have been virtually ignored. (3) To explain more fully the nature of the tasks that incoming international students encounter, this article undertake a comprehensive linguistic description of the range of spoken and written register at U. S. universities. (4) Specifically, the article describes a multidimensional analysis of register variation in the TOEFL 2000 Spoken and Written Academic Language Corpus. (5) The analysis shows that spoken registers are fundamentally different from written ones in university contests, regardless of purpose. (6) Some of the register characterizations are particularly surprising. (7) For example, classroom teaching was similar to conversational registers in many respects, and departmental brochures and Web pages were as informationally dense as textbooks. (8) The article discusses the implications of theses findings for pedagogy and further research.
作者在第一、二句中提出了研究的主题(academic discourse)、论文关注的对象(textbooks、study groups和service encounters)和背景信息(dozens of studies … over the past 20 years、Other registers … have received surprisingly little attention, … have been virtually ignored.);在第三句中,作者指出了研究的目的;第四句简要说明了研究的方法;第五句则是研究的发现,最后几句则是该研究发现为教学和对以后研究所带来的启示。
由此可见,摘要共有六个结构要素:主题阐述(Topic Specification, TS)、背景信息(Background Information, BI)、目的陈述(Purpose Statement, PS)、方法论和语料(Methodology and Data, MD)、研究结果/发现(Results/Findings, RF)和研究所带来的启示/结论(Implications/Conclusions, IC)。
要点四:如何写正文
1. 绪论(introduction)
绪论应说明研究这一课题的理由和意义。其核心是提出问题或者论点。还应对这一课题的历史研究进行回顾,并说明将要使用的研究方法。如论文较长,有必要对本论部分加以概括介绍,便于阅读理解。
1)毕业论文的绪论部分包括:
(1)通过介绍研究课题的有关情况,引起读者的兴趣;
(2)将讨论聚焦到某个问题层面上;
(3)回顾相关的研究文献;
(4)讨论以往相关研究的不足;
(5)对某一课题或课题的某一方面提出新的、不同的研究方法。
2)绪论的结构要素
(1)引出研究课题
研究课题可通过提问、陈述或引用名人名言等方式引出。其目的是在于引发读者的兴趣。可以先提问,接着由作者自己作答,或提一个间接问题,再作答。如:
What happens in the language classroom is intimately linked to social and political forces in the world at large, and the practitioners must not only be aware but also understand these links if they are to be fully effective in their work.
也可进行评价来归纳和概括。如:
Research on learner beliefs in the last two decades had given us interesting insights into what language learners’ view are concerning the teaching and learning of a second or foreign language.
通过对interesting insights的评价而对以往的语言学习者观念进行了概括。
(2)聚焦研究课题
在所有毕业论文研究中,聚焦或缩小课题范围是非常必要的。英语文学按时间可分为古代文学、现代文学、后现代文学等;按国别可分为英国文学、美国文学、加拿大文学和澳大利亚文学等;按文体可分为小说、散文和诗歌等等。对英语专业学生而言,如果写文学,首先应确定是英国文学还是美国文学,如是美国文学,那么再缩小范围,如美国20世纪文学,确定一个方面,研究某作家作品的人物性格还是语言特点,是研究其互文关系还是研究其作品的深层文化因素等,在绪论中,学生应以陈述研究的形式将讨论聚焦到研究的课题上。如:
a. The purpose of this study is to investigate one of the consequences of the simplification phenomenon, i. E. a reduction in lexical density, in a number of texts.
b. The present study extends previous research in the following ways. Firstly…, Secondly…, Finally…
a将论述的焦点是one of the consequences of the simplification phenomenon。而b从三个方面去extends previous research。
(3)文献回顾
任何研究都是基于一个已存在的大量的研究资料和研究成果之上。如书籍、学术期刊杂志、论文集、光盘,甚至于网络等,任何研究相同领域者都可利用相关的资料和成果,从而提出自己的观点和看法。如若缺乏对相关文献的研究,对绝大多数学生来说,就如同无源之水,无本之木。任何一门学科的知识都有一定的传承性和连续性。缺乏必要的学术背景知识,研究也很难令人信服。
在实际论文写作中,许多研究者都将文献回顾单列一章,即文献回顾不一定必须列入引言部分。对于英语专业本科生来说,我们建议将文献回顾置入引言部分。当然,文献回顾也可出现在讨论中,甚至在结论中,这就必须根据具体情况而定了。
那么,该如何进行文献回顾呢?有三种方法可供选择使用。
① 采用直接或间接引语的方法。引用前人或权威等的话语能大大增强文章的说服力,无论是直接引语还是间接引语。学生必须对本研究领域的相关信息和成果相当熟悉,才能很好地引用资料。对同一个课题的研究往往有不同的观点和看法,甚至相反的观点,学生引用时则必须经过慎重考虑并选择能支持自己论文中的观点的部分加以引用。一旦选定材料,则可直接或间接地将相关的内容、观点、思想等引用到自己的论文中。但记住,引用而不抄袭。引用应注明其出处。引用的目的是为了论述与自己研究课题的关系,也是为了论证自己的论点,所以,引用既要恰当,也要适度。一般说来,引文不能超过自己论文的三分之一,否则视为抄袭。英语专业本科生毕业论文一般在5000词左右,在这么短的论文中,引用时必须慎重考虑。请看以下例:
One of the criticisms of using parallel corpora, mentioned by Mauranen (1998) has been that “translated language is different from original language” (p. 160). Mauranen (ibid) states that this is related to “a search for translation universals, i.e. features that make translated texts special… we have grounds for hypothesizing such strategies as for instance simplification, explicitization, overcompensation with target-like features, etc”.
作者将第一句中的引语看作一种criticism,而第二句中的state乃是引述动词,用于带出引语。引述动词对于表达作者对该引语的评价有重要的意义。另外,如果引语较长,超过三行时,则应以缩排的形式独立成段。
② 采用解释的方法。解释就是用自己的语言对其他资料的内容进行重写。但解释应忠实和保留原意,不能修改或篡改。解释的方法很多,可用同义词、主动语态与被动语态互换、直接引语和间接引语互换转述原文的意思。解释前应反复研读和理解原文,再列出其提纲或要点。(举例略)
③ 对较长的引用段落进行概述。
概述是对较长引语进行缩写并引入论文的方法。概述前也应熟读和理解原文,最好还是列出提纲,引用原文的要点即可。
For generations, American have researched their pasts to discover who their ancestors were. In recent years, many more people have developed an avid interest in their genealogy and the cultural heritage of their ancestors. This interest was sparked for two reasons. First, American celebrated the bicentennial of the United States in 1976 and paid tribute to the country’s history. Second, and more recently, the book Roots, which traces the family history of an American black man named Alex Haley back to Africa, was serialized on national television. As a result of these two events, a new pastime for thousands of Americans was created.
提纲:
A. American research into background
1. Ancestors
2. Cultural heritage
B. Reasons for research
1. Bicentennial celebration
2. Roots
概述:
Recently, many Americans have become interested in researching their backgrounds in order to identify their ancestors and learn about their cultural heritage. This interest in genealogy began with the U. S. Bicentennial celebration and intensified with the televising of the family history of Alex Haley, a black American.
(4)讨论前人研究的不足
在引言中,应阐明你为什么要研究这一课题。通常的做法是,通过讨论前人在本领域的某个方面的不足,从而提出自己研究的目的。请看以下几例:
a. One of the criticisms of using parallel texts... has been that “translated language is different from original language”. A research question which can be answered statistically then is “Are translated texts simpler than comparable monolingual texts in the target language?”
b. Research in the psycholinguistic tradition focuses mainly on task design and fails to see the importance of the interaction of learner factors and the setting. Furthermore, little research has been done on either the learner factor or the setting...
以上的a中,criticism指出了先前parallel texts研究的不足,再通过提问而引出新研究的课题;b中的fails和little research都指出先前的研究中的不足。
(5)提出新的研究方法
引言的最后一部分内容应简述你在研究课题中所使用的研究方法。虽然研究方法多种多样,研究情景因素各不相同,但开展研究的步骤却是相同的。对大多数英语专业本科毕业生来说,写作毕业论文所采用的研究方法是大致相同。如果采用某种前人的研究方法,则应注明研究方法的出处。如:
This study is a replication of a study carried out in Singapore by one of the authors (Ghadessy 1988).
在以下的例子中,研究目的之后就是关于新的研究方法的讨论。
The purpose of this study is to investigate one of the consequences of the simplification phenomenon, i.e. a reduction in lexical density, in a number of texts. First, original texts in English and Chinese and their translation (parallel texts) will be compar3ed and then the respective translated texts in the two languages will be contrasted with other original texts in the two language (comparable texts) for simplification in lexical density.
绪论,无论长短,必须层次分明、逻辑严密、表述清晰。绪论是导入正文的准备部分,它为你的论证和论述提供了相关的信息和铺垫,应该说,绪论是整个论文不可或缺的一部分,在毕业论文整体信息的组织方面起着重要作用。学生撰写毕业论文时,不一定非按以上所讨论的绪论结构要素的顺序写作,但绪论也应基本包括这些要素,并根据写作的具体情况,按照一定的顺序将绪论部分组织成一个有机的整体。要更清楚地了解绪论的写法,建议毕业生多阅读一些已经发表的论文绪论,并学会归纳和总结其结构和语言特点。这必将对自己撰写毕业论文有一定的帮助和指导作用。
绪论中通常可用以下句型:
One of the most important aspects of ...
It has been proved that ...
It was proved (reported) t hat ...
Smith et al. (2000) reported that ...
Most of the experiments were carried out ...
It has been long known that ...
It is well documented that ...
According to the ... theory, ...
2. 本论(body)
1)研究方法论
毕业论文的摘要和引言介绍了论文的主题和相关的背景资料,本论是对毕业论文提出的论点(thesis)加以论证。进行个案研究,必须给出研究实例,实例应当是客观的、适用的、按照科学的方法选择的,并对选择的方法加以说明。分析讨论应层次清晰,可以针对前述个案,也可在不需要具体实例的情况下,对所提出的问题进行分析讨论。
本章就毕业论文的写作方法展开讨论,以给毕业生在写作毕业论文一些方法论的指导。在这部分中,学生应介绍自己的研究是遵循什么方法而展开的。任何研究都受到许多变量的影响,毕业论文或学术论文都必须涉及并讨论这些变量。方法通常包括:(1)材料;(2)设计;(3)分析;(4)步骤;(5)研究结果。
(1)材料
几乎在任何研究中,语料收集都是必不可少的。收集材料取决于调查的方法和写作的目的,语料可以是出版材料、问卷调查、测试结果、网上资料等。
We designed the T2K-SEAL Corpus to be relatively large ( 2.7 million words ) and to represent the academic registers that U. S. university students must listen to or read ( see Tale 3 ).
研究者使用了口头材料,如班级会议、课堂交流、实验室或课内分组活动、办公用语、学术研讨会以及服务接触等。
收集材料的方法也非常重要。在这部分中,学生也可是使用图表、表格等。介绍材料文字长短则应根据研究设计的需要而定。
(2)设计
阐明整个研究是如何设计的。定量研究的设计有一个需要检验的假设,而定性研究设计却没有。如:
① Using the terminology of Baker (1995:230), the hypotheses tested will be:
a. There is no significant difference between type 1 and type 2 samples in relation to lexical density. (parallel texts)
b. ...
② We designed the T2K-SEAL Corpus to be relatively large (2.7 million words) and to represent the academic registers that U. S. university students must listen to or read (see Tale 3). The register categories chosen for the corpus reflect the spoken and written activities associated with academic life, including... (TESOL 2002: 19)
例①的设计包括许多假设,而例②则是讨论原因并说明研究使用的语料库所涉及的语料类型。
(3)分析
分析应基于该研究领域的研究惯例,所以必须描述研究所使用的工具和他们的来源或分析的步骤性过程。如:
The analysis consisted of several steps intended to explore the scales and the scores they produced for the essays. We first analyzed the scale descriptors. The five scaling questions that each of the teams generated function as descriptors of differences among writing samples at different ability levels ...In the second part of the analysis ...The third part of the analysis consisted of ...
(4)步骤
步骤为以上提供一些附加信息。如下面这个例子(见OPALS 2001)就提供了更多的有关英汉语篇分析的具体信息。
All the content/lexical words in the English/Chinese texts were counted and the total for each text was divided by the number of ranking clauses (not embedded) in that text to get the lexical density of each text.
在本部分中,应使用恰当的动词短语,根据不同的时间,使用过去、最近过去和现在时态。如介绍过去的情况,则用过去时态,主动还是被动语态也应根据情况而定。如是评论或发表自己的看法,一般有采用现在时态。这部分尤其值得计划撰写语言学类和教学类论文的学生参考,它可提供一些方法上的指导,这对其论文撰写是非常有意义的。
(5)研究结果
毕业论文的研究结果为研究方法所描述的调查提供最终结果。调查结果通常以表格、图表、图解、清单等形式出现,并都配有文字加以描述和说明。图文互为补充、互为说明。切记,在毕业论文的调查研究结果中,一定要提供视图信息,并用文字加以说明,缺一不可。(举例——略)
毕业论文结果也可再细分为几节,分别由表格、图表等形式,或段落标题标示出来。建议学生多研读已发表的学术/研究论文,借鉴其格式和方法。结果部分的语言应清楚简洁,解释有理有据,令人信服。表格、图表和图解和其他视图与文字相得益彰。
2)论证
论证是毕业论文中最难的一部分,既要讨论研究发现的意义,又要阐明该领域已经存在的研究,自己的研究与前人的研究关系,阐明其观点、理论等,还要论证论文所提出论点等一系列问题。论证主要对研究的发现以及可能影响(或不影响)研究结果的因素进行解释,并论证自己在论文中提出的论点。如研究涉及多个因素或变量,则分节进行讨论。请读下面一节:
There are significant differences, indicated by * *, in English and Chinese texts in relation to a number of features. The main reason for the differences relate to the number of clauses in the nine English texts, a range of 32 to 75, as compared to the nine translations in Chinese, a range of 45 to 79. The average clause number in Chinese is 60.88 per text, in English it is 47.33. The crucial question is “What happens to the English Clause when it is translated into Chinese?” A general answer is that in many cases the English clause is rendered into more than one clause in Chinese, each with its own Them. Let us see how this is done in a few examples from the two data sets. All Themes are underlined. The numbers preceding each example correspond to the number of text (given first) and the number of clause Them (given next). If the English Clause is rendered into more than one clause in Chinese, this is shown by the third number.
作者先陈述了两种语篇之间的significant differences,并解释了得到该发现的main reason;然后,详细讨论了小句的数量,提出问题,再作答,最后,作者举例对所给例子的格式和标记系统加以描述和解释,从而有力地支持了其结论。也可一开始就进行解释的,如:An explanation for ... is/may be ...;
还可阐明自己的研究结果证实或支持别人的观点,从而反证自己结果的正确性。如:
The findings support an idiomatic view of language and confirm the observations of many linguists that the delexical chunk is a prominent feature in modern language use.
描述、阐明、比较、对比、论证、主张和解释等用来进行讨论。其内容可能会用到前面的使用的例子,也可用新的例子来证实或支持论文的观点。讨论部分具有多种功能,写作较难。动词的选用也是很重要的。如:report, show, characterize, suggest, use, intend, contradict, prevail, fo cus, enable, speculate, maintain, compare, claim, tend, represent等。讨论部分应将其他个部分相关信息加以综合对比,以论证或支持自己的论点。
在方法、论证等部分可参考使用一些英文句型,如:
It has been shown that ...
As we know, ...
As has been stated (proved) that ...
It was proved (reported) that ...
Hayman (1982) pointed out that ...
Two methods have been employed to estimate the ...
Smith et al. (2000) reported that...
Several experiments on ...
Based on the results of...
...were (was) discussed and reviewed.
In preliminary studies using...
The experiment on ...was carried by...
In spite of the potential importance of...
We hypothesize that under conditions of...
The following questions need to be answered: ...
We have examined the effects of...on...
Although increasingly more is known about...
As... can be..., several author have investigated the role of...
A developmental study was undertaken to describe the...
Many studies have brought out that...
Many previous studies have shown that...
Some information is also available as to ...
In the present study...was researched under conditions of...
We are also interested in ...
In addition to our interest in understanding...In addition to its role as a...
In contrast, the present author found previously that...
The results made by...have shown...
Recent evidence suggested that...
Recent experiments by...have suggested...
To meet this challenge, a great deal of effort focusing on...
...is (are) needed better understand...At the present time...
However, it is becoming increasingly clear that...
3. 结论(conclusion)
毕业论文的结语乃是回顾和总结自己的论点,结束全文,它具有回顾性和回溯性。结论部分也是毕业论文有机整体的一部分。结论部分在整篇论文中起到结束全文的重要作用,必须对全文做出总结,重申论文中的论点,并强调研究发现的重要性。结论部分多以现在时态为主,少有使用过去时态的。但也应视具体情况而定。
结论部分包括三个组成部分:(1)总结、回顾论文各部分的主要内容,重申论文的论点;(2)探讨该研究在更加广泛的研究背景下的意义;(3)展望该研究在未来的发展趋势。如:
This paper presents a call for schools in the independent education sector to assess the provision of ELICOS for international FLOTE students who intend to pursue secondary school and further education study in Australia. Given the resources and experience of independent schools in education, I believe that as ELICOS providers they have a potential to make a valuable contribution to English language education for international students. It is my hope that further investigations of ELICOS for secondary school and further education studies will contribute to the needed dissemination of research on delivering English language courses in Australian school courses.
作者首先总结和回顾全文,然后对ELICOS承办者做出评价,最后展望未来对该领域进一步研究的可能性。
结论应概括、归纳和总结全文,应包含论文各部分的主要观点并阐明个部分的关系。与此同时,大部分结论都展望未来并简要探讨该研究对同一领域相关研究的作用和意义。当然,也有的在结论部分提到现阶段研究不足之处,或采用其他方法的,但大多都采用第一中方式结束论文。请看以下论文结束部分:
It would be quite wrong for me to imply here that a surefire solution has been found to the widespread and intractable problem of providing a crash course in report writing for postgraduate students possessed of a very wide range of English skills at intake. What does seem clear, however, is that focusing on text at the phrase level, and in particular the phrase structure “X of Y”, provides a useful starting point, acceptable and helpful to students at all but he very lowest levels. It will be of interest to establish in future whether command and use of this structure correlates with relatively higher marks both in Geology examination answers and in the end-pf-program research report.
作者指出了论文中所提建议的不足之处,最后展望未来,指出在该领域进一步探讨研究的可能性。
根据论文的论题,引用该领域一位名人或权威的话结束论文,这也是非常好的结束论文的一种方法。引用名人或权威的话可使论文更加具有说服力,但引用的话应能充分切合你的论点,并能充分证明或支持你在论文中提出的论点。如:
There is no doubt that machines will get smarter and amarter, evern designing their own software and making new and better chips for new generations of computers (“incest is best,” one industry slogan has it). More and more of their power will be devoted to making them easier to use — “friendly”, in industry parlance — even for those not trained in computer science. And computer scientists expect that public ingenuity will come up with applications the most visionary researchers have not even considered. One day, a global network of smart machines will be exchanging rapid-fire bursts of information at unimaginable speeds. If they are used wisely, they could help mankind to educate its masses and crack new scientific frontiers. “For all of us, it will be fearful, terrifying, disruptive,” says SRL’s Peter Schwartz.
“In the end there will be those whose lives will be diminished. But for the vast majority, their lives will be greatly enhanced.” In any event, there is no turning back: if the smart machines have not taken over, they are fast making themselves indispensable — and in the end, that may amount to very much the same thing.
也可提出问题结束论文,但开篇提问与提问结尾的功能是不同的。开篇提问的目的是为了分析和解决问题,而结尾时提出的问题是为了给读者以思考的余地。
结束部分可用以下句型:
To test specifically the ability of...
The primary objective of our study was to examine ...
The goal of this study was to select...and to see whether the ...
The objective of the current study was therefore to examine the effects of... on ...
This paper reports the growth response of ... to ... under field condition in...
This paper describes an experiment done to test the effects of... on...
Our objectives were (I)..., (ii) ...
要点五:如何标引文(注释)
一般而言,注释(Notes)之功能有四:1.对于正文中所陈述之事实、论点、或所引述之文句,说明所根据资料来源之权威性;2.做为交互参照(Cross-reference),指引读者参照论文中其它有关部分;3.当作者认为应该对正文中所提到的资料或所讨论的议题,做进一步的附带说明、评论或衍伸,而又怕在正文中提及会影响行文顺畅,或是打断读者的思路时,就可以利用注释来加以阐释;4.作者对在其研究过程中,曾给予支持、协助或启发之个人或团体,表示感谢之意。
因此,注释可以分为两种,一为说明资料出处的资料注(Reference notes),用以彰显前述注释之第1、2项功用;二为解释内容的内容注(Content notes),用以满足前述注释之第3、4项功用。
注释通常采用夹注(in-text note);脚注(footnote)和尾注(endnote)三种方法。
1.夹注即在引文之后,用括号的形式注明引文的作者、著作或文章的名称、出版处、页码等。夹注应清晰而准确。注明必须的信息即可。整个夹注用括号与行文区分开。
1)论文正文中提及作者名的,只在括号内注明页码即可。
This fact led the critic Owen Thomas to conclude that Emily Dickinson “was well aware of the world outside her little room, that in fact she used the language of this outside world to crate some of here best poetry”(523).
2)如论文正文中没有提及作者姓名,夹注中应注明作者和页码。
But an economist who predicted the depression of 1981 a year in advance fears the price of gold will decline slowly for at least ten years (Goodserve 143).
3)若所引用的作者资料在后面的Works Cited中不止一处的,则应在夹注中注明其题目,除非在文中已经提到了。
Chomsky claims that all humans inherit the same basic linguistic structural framework upon which their community’s particular language is fitted (Language 29-41).
4)如不知作者姓名,则文中也没有提及,那么,则在夹注中将题目注明。
Only Mayor McCarthy expressed the least optimism toward the city’s fate (“Rebirth” 2).
5)如果引用的资料有两个或以上作者,论文中已经提到了,则只在括号里注明页码;如论文中没有提及,则应在括号里注明作者和页码。
Patterson and Linden agree that the gorilla Koko acquitted language more slowly than a normal speaking child (83-90).
The authors of Women’s Ways of Knowing make a distinction between “separate knowing” and “connected knowing” (Belenky et al. 100-30) or (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule 100-30).
6)如论文引用的是多卷本书籍,括号内应注明卷号和页码。
Terman’s studies of gifted children reveal a pattern of accelerated language acquisition (2: 279).
7)如引用小说则先在括号内注明页码,再注明其所在的章节。
Fitzgerald’s narrator captures Gatsby in a moment of isolation: “A sudden emptiness seemed to flow now from the windows and the great doors, endowing with complete isolation the figure of the host”(56; ch. 3).
引用戏剧,则应在括号内列出幕、场和行。
In his famous advice to the players, Hamlet defines the purpose of theater, “Whose end, both at he first and now, was and is, to hold, as ‘twere, the mirror up to nature” (3.2.21-23).
引用诗歌,则应在括号内注明其所在的诗节(如有的话)和诗行。
When Homer’s Odysseus came to the hall of Ciurce, he found his men “mild / in her soft spell, fed on her drug of evil” (10.209-11).
8)如果引用的是他人引用的语言,则在括号内注明“qtd. in”。
“We only used seven signs in his presence,” says Fouts. “All of his signs were lwarned from the other chimps at the laboratory” (qtd. In Toner 24).
9)如果引用的不止一种资料来源,则在括号内分别注明,中间用分号隔开。
With intensive training, the apes in this study learned more than 200 signs or signals (Desmond 229; Linden 173).
2.脚注即在一页稿纸的下端注明引文的出处。在引文末端右上角用阿拉伯数字标明序号,并使用上标。须注意。标引文序号,要以页为单位。
Literary critics, serious biographers, and writers of fictionalized accounts of her life created an image of Emily Dickinson as a timid, reclusive, mystical thinker, who was too absorbed in personal sorrows and ecstasies to be concerned with literary recognition. And this image persists, to a great extent, in the public mind today.1
其脚注应位于本页的下方,如
For a full discussion of sources leading to the “Emily Myth,” see Ferlazzo: 13-21.
3.尾注即在全文后面集中标明引文的出处,与脚注不同的是它将全文的引文从前至后按阿拉伯数字的顺序统一编号。文中序号都应使用上标注明。尾注位于论文正文之后,Works Cited之前,单独成页。
采用何种方法加注,要视全文的情况而定。通常情况下,全文引文不多,使用夹注可以给人以直观的感觉;如果引文较多,则最好用脚注或尾注的形式。
要点六:参考文献
1. 引用书籍和其他非杂志类的出版物
1)一个作者,一本著作(A Book by a Single Author)
这是学生毕业论文中引用最多的一种形式,包括三个主要部分:
Author’s name. Title of the book. Publication information.
作者姓名. 书名. 出版信息
例如:
Wilson, Frank R. The Hand: How Its Use Shapes the Brain, Language, and Human Culture. New York: Pantheon, 1998.
作者姓名(Author’s Name)
将作者的姓放在前,名在后,中间用逗号隔开,全名后再用句号。
Wilson, Frank R.
Porter, Katherine Anne.
在Works Cited中,作者姓名应与所引用的书名或文章中一致,不能将其名字缩写,如书籍中的作者名字是George Brown,在Works Cited中则不能写成Brown, G. 如果引用的书籍或文章中用的是缩略形式,则可沿用。如
Eliot, T. S.
McLuhan, H. Marshall.
作者姓名前的职称、职务或学位等,在Works Cited中都应略去。
ON TITLE PAGE
IN WORKS-CITED LIST
Anthony T. Boyle, PhD
Boyle, Anthony T.
Sister Jean Daniel
Daniel, Jean.
Sir Philip Sidney
Sidney, Philip.
书名(Title of the Book)
通常,所引用的书名应用全称,包括副标题在内。如果有副标题,则在书名后加冒号(colon),当然,书名是末尾是问号、感叹号或破折号时除外。书名全称(包括副标题)后加句号(period),如书名的结尾有另一个标点符号除外。书名全称,包括冒号、副标题和书名中的标点符号都加下划线,但书名全称后的句号不能加下划线。
Wilson, Frank R. The Hand: How Its Use Shapes the Brain, Language, and Human Culture.
出版信息(Publication Information)
出版信息通常包括出版城市(city of publication)、出版商(publisher’s name)和出版年(year of publication)。出版商一般在封面,而其他出版信息则在封页背后,封页后的第一页,或在书后,或封底。出版城市和出版商之间用冒号隔开,出版上和出版年之间则用逗号隔开,出版年后用句号。
Wilson, Frank R. The Hand: How Its Use Shapes the Brain, Language, and Human Culture. New York: Pantheon, 1998.
2)选集或编撰作品(An Anthology or a Compilation)
引用选集或编撰作品,在Works Cited中的条目,若是编辑的作品,其格式如下:
Name of the editor or compiler. ed. Title of the book. City of publication. Publisher’s name. Year of publication.
例如:
Standford, Paula R., ed. British Women Poets of the Romantic Era. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1997.
若是编选的作品,其格式则如下:
Name of the editor or compiler. comp. Title of the book. City of publication. Publisher’s name. Year of publication.
例如:
Keats, Peter, comp. The Hopi Way: Tales from a Vanishing Culture. New York: Anchor-Doubleday, 1994.
3)同一作者,两本或以上书籍(Two or more Books by the Same Author)
在Works Cited作者的第一次条目中,写出作者姓名,之后,用三个连字号代替作者姓名,加句号和书名等。如果提到的这个作者编选、编辑或翻译的作品,则在连字号后加逗号,再写上适当的缩写形式,如ed. trans. 或comp. 例如:
Borroff, Marie. Language and the Past: Verbal Artistry in Frost, Stevens, and Moore. Chicago: University of Chicago P, 1979.
—, trans. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. New York: Norton, 1967.
—, ed. Wallace Stevens: A collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice, 1963.
4)两个或以上作者,一本书籍(A Book by Two or More Authors)
引用书籍有两个或以上作者时,按照书上作者的顺序排列,而不按字母顺序。只需将第一作者的姓提前,与名之间用逗号隔开,其余作者姓名则不变。最后一个作者后加句号。如果作者是编撰者或译者,则在最后一个名字后加逗号,而不是句号,再写上eds. trans. 或comps.
Eggins, Suzanne, and Diane Slade. Analyzing Casual Conversation. London: Cassell, 1997.
Rabkin, Eric S., Martin H. Greenberg, and Joseph D. Olander, eds. No Place Else: Explorations in Utopian and Dystopian Fiction. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1983.
如果超过三位作者,则只写第一作者,再加et al.(and others),或者按照书上作者顺序将他们全部写出。
Gilman, Sander, et al. Hysteria Beyond Freud. Berkeley: U of California P, 1993.
Gilman, Sander, Helen King, Roy Porter, George Rousseau, and Elaine Showalter. Hysteria Beyond Freud. Berkeley: U of California P, 1993.
如果引用的一个作者也是另外一本书的第一作者,其他应将其全名写出,而不用三个连字号代替。
Scholes, Robert. Protocols of Reading. New Haven: Yale UP, 1989.
Scholes, Robert, and Robert Kellogg. The Nature of Narrative. New York: Oxford UP, 1966.
5)同一批作者,两本或以上书籍(Two or More Books by the Same Authors)
如果引用的是同样几个作者的两本或两本以上的书籍,在Works Cited条目中,只需第一次将全部名字写出来,之后,也用三个连字号代替,再加句号和书名等。
Gilbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. New Haven: Yale UP, 1979.
—, eds. The Norton Anthology of Literature by Women: The Tradition in English. 2nd ed. New York: Norton, 1996.
6)集体名义的书籍(A Book by a Corporate Author)
往往由一个协会、委员会或一个群体编写的书籍,而没有个体成员的名字,在Works Cited条目中,则用如下格式:
American Medical Association. The American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine. New York: Random, 1989.
7)选集中的作品(A Work in an Anthology)
如果引用选集中的一个故事、一篇短文、一首诗歌,则需要添加以下信息:
Author, title, and (if relevant) translator of the part of the book being cited. 在Works Cited条目中,写出引用文章的作者、作品(加引号),(如果引用的文章有译者,则应加上Trans. 和译者姓名)再写选集名称(加下划线),选集中若有译者、编者和编选者,则在trans. Ed. 和Comp.(Translated by,Edited by 和Compiled by)之后再写出译者姓名、出版城市、出版社、出版年和页码。
Calvino, Italo. “Toad’s Mouth.” Trans. Margaret Sayers Peden. A Hammock beneath the Mangoes: Stories from Latin America. Ed. Thomas Colchie. New York: Plume, 1992. 83-88.
More, Hannah. “The Black Slave Trade: A Poem.” British Women Poets of the Romantic Era. Ed. Paula R. Feldman. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1997. 472-82.
8)参考书中的文章(An Article in a Reference Book)
引用百科全书或词典的词条时,不需注明编者。若文章或词条有署名,则先注明作者;如未署名,则先写出书名。如百科全书或词典是按字母顺序排列,卷号和页码可省略。引用大家都熟悉的参考书籍时,只注明版本和出版年则可。
“Ginsburg, Ruth Bader.” Who’s Who in America. 52nd ed. 1998.
“Mandarin.” The Encyclopedia Americana. 1994 ed.
Mohanty, Jitendra M. “Indian Philosophy.” The New Encyclopaedia Britannica: Macropaedia. 15th ed. 1987.
若引用不熟悉的参考书籍,尤其是只出过一个版本的,应注明所有出版信息。
Le Patourel, John. “Normans and Normandy.” Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Ed. Joseph R. Strayer. 13 vols. New York: Scribner’s, 1987.
9)引用前言或后记(An Introduction, a Preface, a Foreword, or an Afterword)
引用前言或后记时,先写出作者姓名,再写出引用部分名称(第一个字母大写,不用下划线或引号)。若前言或后记的作者不是本书的作者,书名后注明其作者,用全名和正常顺序。作者前加By。若引用的前言或后记与本书是同一作者,则在By后只用姓即可。然后,注明出版信息和页码。
Doctorow, E. L. Introduction. Sister Carrie. By Theodore Dreiser. New York: Bantam, 1982. v-xi.
Elliott, Emory. Afterword. The Jungle. By Upton Sinclair. New York: Signet, 1990. 342-50.
Borges, Jorge Luis. Foreword. Selected Poems. 1923-1967. By Borges. Ed. Norman Thomas Di Giovanni. New York: Delta-Dell, 1973. xv-xvi.
如前言或后记有题目,则加引号注明该题目,放在该部分前。
Doody, Margaret Anne. “In Search of the Ancient Novel.” Introduction. The True Story of the Novel. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 1996. 1-11.
10)引用没有作者或编者的书(An Anonymous Book)
若所引用的书籍没有作者或编者,则将书名按字母顺序在Works Cited中注明,A,An或The应忽略不计。如A Guide to Our Federal Lands按字母顺序应属于g。
Encyclopedia of Virginia. New York: Somerset, 1993.
A Guide to Our Federal Lands. Washington: Natl. Geographic Soc., 1984.
11)版本(An Edition)
注明版本时,先写出作者名(没有作者则写书名),再注明书名,在Ed. 后注明编者名和出版信息。
Rossetti, Christina. Selected Prose of Christina Rossetti. Ed. David A. Kent and P. G. Stanwood. New York: St. Martin’s, 1998.
Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Ed. Barbara A. Mowat and Paul Werstine. New York: Washington Square-Pocket, 1992.
如果引用的是编者的内容(介绍、注释等),则用如下格式:
Bowers, Fredson, ed. The Red Badge of Courage: An Episode of the American Civil War. By Stephen Crane. 1895. Charlottesville: UP of Virginia, 1975.
12)引用翻译作品(A Translation)
引用翻译作品时,先注明作者姓名和作品名称,在Trans.后写出译者姓名。如既有编者也有译者,则在Ed.后写出编者姓名。
Dostoevsky, Feodor. Crime and Punishment. Trans. Jessie Coulson. Ed. George Gibian. New York: Norton, 1964.
Homer. The Odyssey. Trans. Robert Eagles. New York: Viking, 1996.
如引用的是译者的评论等,则先写出译者的名字,在加逗号和Trans. 作者前要加By。格式如下:
Coulson, Jessie, Trans. Crime and Punishment. By Feodor Dostoevsky. Ed. George Gibian. New York: Norton, 1964.
13)引用再版或多次再版的书籍(A Book Published in a Second or Subsequent Edition)
一般说来,引用没有注明出版的版本,原则上被认为是第一个版本。第二、三、四等版,则注明2nd ed. 3rd ed. 4th ed.等;如果是修订本,则注明Rev. ed.(Revised edition);若是删节本,则注明Abr. Ed.(Abridged edition)。格式如下:
Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer. Ed. F. W. Robinson. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton, 1957.
Murasake Shikibu. The Tale of Genji. Trans. Edward G. Seidensticker. Abr. Ed. New York: Vintage-Random, 1985.
14)引用多卷本书籍(A Multivolume Work)
若引用多卷本书籍,在Works Cited中应注明总卷数,放在书名后,而具体的卷号和页码则应放在文本中,并加括号注明,如(3:212-13)。
Lauter, Paul, et al., eds. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. 2nc ed. 2 vols. Lexington: Heath, 1994.
Blanco, Richard L., ed. The American Revolution, 1775-1783: An Encyclopedia. 2 vols. Hamden: Garland, 1993.
若只引用其中一卷,且该卷有单独的题目或书名,则只需注明该卷,而不需注明其他卷本。
Churchill, Winston S. The Age of Revolution. New York: Dodd, 1957.
有时,为了提供更多的信息也可将该卷的卷号、多卷本的书名、总卷号和出版年注明。
Churchill, Winston S. The Age of Revolution. New York: Dodd, 1957. Vol. 3 of A History of the English-Speaking Peoples. 4 vols. 1956-58.
15)引用系列丛书(A Book in a Series)
如果引用系列丛书,应注明丛书名(不加下划线也不加引号)、丛书号。书号后加句号。再注明出版信息。
Charriere, Isabelle de. Letters of Mistress Henley Published by Her Friend. Trans. Philip Stewart and Jean Vache. Texts and Trans. 1. New York: MLA, 1993.
16)再版的书籍(A Republished Book)
引用再版书籍时,应注明初版日期,日期后用句号,在注明所引用书的出版信息。
Doctorow, E. L. Welcome to Hard Times. 1960. New York: Vintage-Random, 1988.
初版的出版信息也可注明。如:
Doctorow, E. L. Welcome to Hard Times. New York: Bantam, 1960. New York: Vintage-Random, 1988.
17)引用多家出版社出版的书籍(A Book with Multiple Publishers)
如果所引用的书籍上有两家或以上出版社,则按照书上排列顺序在出版信息中注明,中间用分号(semicolon)隔开。
Wells, H. G. The Time Machine. 1895. London: Dent; Rutland: Tuttle, 1992.
18)引用非英语类书籍(A Book in a Language Other Than English)
引用其他语言类书籍时,也按照英文书籍Works Cited的格式加以注明。为了清晰,可翻译成英语,但必须加方括号(brackets),如“文化 [Culture]”。同样,外国城市,也可写出英文名称,也必须加方括号,如“Wien [Vienna]”。或者,直接用原来的语言按照英文参考文献格式注明。
Poche, Emanuel. Prazske Palace. Praha [Prague]: Odeon, 1997.
张志建.严复思想研究[M]. 桂林:广西师范大学出版社,1989.
19)引用未出版的论文(An Unpublished Dissertation)
引用未出版的论文时,论文加引号,但不加下划线,注明Diss.和授予学位的学校,加逗号后在注明日期。
Boyle, Anthony T. “The Epistemological Evolution of Renaissance Utopian Literature, 1516-1657.” Diss. New York U, 1983.
20)引用已出版的论文(A Published Dissertation)
引用已出版的论文书籍,则应注明其名称,在加下划线。若论文The Epistemological Evolution of Renaissance Utopian Literature, 1516-1657已成书出版,那么,则应如此注明:
Boyle, Anthony T. The Epistemological Evolution of Renaissance Utopian Literature, 1516-1657. Diss. New York U, 1983. New York: Wings, 1988.
2. 引用学术期刊/杂志文章
学术期刊杂志通常一年四期或六期,其论文具有一定的学术性,有作者原创的研究、阐释和思想。学术期刊主要是针对专业人士,而非一般读者。学生做毕业论文就必须多读一些与自己研究课题相关的学术期刊,如果引用或参考他人的学术成果,学生必须将其注明。引用学术期刊杂志主要也有三部分:
作者姓名.文章名.出版信息.
Author’s name. “Title fo the article.” Publication information.
例如:
Most, Andrea. “‘We Know We Belong to the Land’: The Theatricality of Assimilation in Rodgers and Hammerstein’s Oklahoma!” PMLA 113 (1998): 77-89.
作者姓名(Authors Name)
如同注明书籍参考文献一样,将英文作者的名和姓颠倒,中间逗号隔开,名后用句号。
Most, Andrea.
文章名(Title of the Article)
注明所引用文章的全名,加引号但不加下划线。如果文章后没有标点符号(问号或感叹号等),则在引号内加句号。
Most, Andrea. “‘we Know We Belong to the Land’: The Theatricality of Assimilation in Rodgers and Hammerstein’s Oklahoma!”
出版信息(Publication Information)
文章名后,写出期刊名(加下划线)、期刊号、出版年(加括号)、冒号、页码和句号。
Most, Andrea. “‘We Know We Belong to the Land’: The Theatricality of Assimilation in Rodgers and Hammerstein’s Oklahoma!” PMLA 113 (1998): 77-89.
1)引用学术期刊每期页码单独标注的文章(An Article in a Scholarly Journal That Pages Each Issue Separately)
许多学术期刊每期页码都是单独编号,必须注明本期刊号。格式为:
作者. “文章名”. 期刊名+卷号. 本期刊号. (出版年):页码.
Barthelme, Frederick. “Architucture.” Kansas Quarterly 13. 3-4 (1981): 77-80.
期刊名应加下划线,期刊名和总期刊号之间不用句号。“13. 3-4”:13指卷号,而3-4则指3与4合刊。
2)引用只有刊号的学术杂志(An Article in a Scholarly Journal That Uses Only Issue Numbers)
有些学术杂志没有卷号,只有刊号,只需将刊号注明即可。
Lajolo, Marisa. “The Female Reader on Trial.” Brasil 14 (1995): 61-81.
3)引用报纸上的文章(An Article in a Newspaper)
引用报纸文章时,如果出版城市没有在地方报纸上,则在应在报纸名后注明,并加方括号,如“Star-Ledger [Newark]”。但对于一些著名报纸则不须著名出版城市。报纸文章应著名完整的日期——日、月、年。除May,June和July外,其余都应缩写。不用注明卷号和期号。如果报纸上注明了版面号,则在日期后加逗号,再注明版面号。如没有版面号,则在日期后加冒号,再注明页码。
Lohr, Steve. “Now Playing: Babes in Cyberspace.” New York Times 3 Apr. 1998, late ed.: C1+.
报纸文章常常转到另外一页,如一篇文章从第一页开始,可能以下转至15页。在Works Cited中,则注明第一页,再加一个+号,如1+,5+等。但论文中引用的内容则必须注明确切的页码。
Alaton, Salem. “So, Did They Live Happily Ever After?” Globe and Mail [Toronto] 27 Dec. 1997: D1+.
4)杂志文章(An Article in a Magazine)
周刊或双周刊杂志文章应注明完整日期(日和月,月应用缩写,除May、June和July外。)日期后用冒号,再注明页码。如果文章不是刊发在连续页面上,则注明文章的首页,再注明+。不用注明卷号和刊号。
Mehta, Pratap Bhanu. “Exploding Myths.” New Republic, 6 June 1998: 17-19.
月刊或双月刊,则应著名出版月和年。如果文章不是刊发在连续页面上,则注明文章的首页,再注明+。也不用注明卷号和刊号。
Murphy, Cullen. “Women and the Bible.” Atlantic Monthly, Aug. 1993: 39-64.
Perlstein, Rick. “Abridged Too Far?” Lingua Franca, Apr. – May 1997: 23–24.
5)评论(A Review)
引用评论时,在Works Cited中应注明作者姓名、评论文章名,在注明Rev. of(不用下划线,也不用引号),再注明被评论作品名,加逗号和By后注明被评论作品作者姓名。如作品有编辑、译者或指导者,则注明ed.、trans.或dir.,而不是by。如果评论的不止一部作品,则按照评论顺序注明作品名和作者姓名。如果评论有标题,而没有作者署名,则将标题按字母顺序在Works Cited中注出。如评论既无标题也无作者,则先注出Rev. of,再将标题按字母顺序在Works Cited中注出。
Rev. of Anthology of Danish Literature, ed. F. J. Billeskov Jansen and P. M. Mitchell. Times Literary Supplement 7 July 1972: 785.
“The Cooling of an Admiration.” Rev. of Pound/Joyce: The Letters of Ezra Pound to James Joyce, with Pound’s Essays on Joyce, ed. Forrest Read. Times Literary Supplement 6 Mar. 1969: 239-40.
Kauffmann, Stanley. “A New Spielberg.” Rev. of Schindler’s List, dir. Steven Spielberg. New Republic 13 Dec. 1993: 30.
Updike, John. “Fine Points.” Rev. of The New Fowler’s Modern English Usage, ed. R. W. Burchfield. New Yorker 23-30 Dec. 1996: 142-49.
6)轶名文章(An Anonymous Article)
如果引用的文章没有作者姓名,则从文章题目开始,按照字母顺序注明,A、An和The不包括在内。
“The Decade of the Spy.” Newsweek 7 Mar. 1994: 26-27.
“Dubious Venture.” Time 3 Jan. 1994: 54-65.
7)系列文章(A Serialized Article)
引用系列文章,或发表在不止一期上的相关系列文章,如作者和标题一样,标注如下:
Garbaccia, Donna R., et al. “Food, Recipes, Cookbooks, and Italian-American Life.” Italian Americana 16 (1998): 5-23, 125-46.
Meserole, Harrison T., and James M. Rambeau. “Articles on American Literature Appearing in Current Periodicals.” American Literature 52 (1981): 688-705; 53 (1981): 164-80, 348-59.
若文章名称不同,则应单独注出。
Songtag, Deborah. “A Mexican Town That Transcends All Borders.” New York Times 21 July 1998, late ed.: A1+. Pt. 3 of a series, Here and There: Immigration New, begun 19 July 1998.
加载中,请稍候......