Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Linguistics

1.1.1 Definition of linguistics

(1) Nature of linguistics: Linguistics (as a branch of science) is the scientific (or systematic) study of language.

(2) Subject matter of linguistics: Linguistics studies all natural languages, living or dead.

(3) Purposes of linguistics: Linguistics aims to answer two questions, i.e. “What is language?” “How does language work? ” (or it aims to discover the nature of language and the ways in which it works).

(4) Principle of linguistics: Linguistics is a science because it is guided by three canons of science:

(i) Exhaustiveness: thoroughness in the examination of materials;

(ii) Consistency: no contradiction between parts of statements;

(iii) Economy: preference for shorter statements or analyses.

(5) Methods of linguistics: Linguistics employs scientific methods of observation, recording and analysis, etc.

1.1.2 Linguistics versus traditional grammar

(1) Nature of traditional grammar: Traditional grammar is the study of language in the period before linguistics came into being. It is based on earlier grammars of Latin or Greek and emphasizes such matters as correctness, linguistic purism, literary excellence, the use of Latin models and the priority of the written language.

(2) Difference of linguistics from traditional grammar:

(i) Linguistics describes language as it is (i.e. is descriptive) while traditional grammar lays down rules of correctness (i.e. is prescriptive);

(ii) Linguistics regards speech as primary while traditional grammar regards writing as basic;

(iii) Linguistics describes each language on its own merits while traditional grammar is based on Latin and tries to impose the Latin grammar on other languages.

1.1.3 Use of Studying Linguistics

Linguistics reveals the nature, properties and laws of language. As it benefits from many related disciplines, it also benefits such areas as language learning, language teaching, literary studies, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and even philosophy.

1.1.4 Scope of linguistics

(1) Microlinguistics versus macrolinguistics: Microlinguistics is the study of language in itself while macrolinguistics is the study of language in relation to something else. (Roughly parallel to the above distinction are the distinctions between formal and functional linguistics, and theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.)

(2) Branches of microlinguistics: Microlinguistics as the study of language in itself includes such branches as phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics.

(i) Phonetics (is a branch of linguistics which) studies the characteristics of the sounds of language in terms of their production, transmission and perception;

(ii) Phonology studies the patterns and functions of sounds of a language;

(iii) Morphology studies the structure of words of a language;

(iv) Syntax studies the structure of sentences of a language;

(v) Semantics studies the meaning of language in its formal aspects;

(vi) Pragmatics studies the use of language (or language in use).

(3) Branches of macrolinguistics: Macrolinguistics as the study of language in relation to other things includes such branches as discourse analysis, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, computational linguistics, corpus linguistics, mathematical linguistics, applied linguistics, educational linguistics, stylistics, forensic linguistics, clinical linguistics, translation studies (translatology), and many others.

(i) Discourse analysis (or text linguistics) studies the structure and function of pieces of language (or texts) in context;

(ii) Psycholinguistics studies the mental structure and processes of (the acquisition, comprehension and production of) language;

(iii) Neurolinguistics studies the neurological structure and processes of (the processing and representation of) language (especially the disturbances of language processing caused by the damage of the brain);

(iv) Cognitive linguistics studies the cognitive structure and processes of language (especially the conceptual and experiential basis of linguistic categories);

(v) Sociolinguistics studies the social aspects of language (or the relations between language and society);

(vi) Anthropological linguistics studies the anthropological aspects of language (especially language in cross-cultural settings);

(vii) Computational linguistics studies language with the help of computer technology;

(viii) Corpus linguistics studies language through the building and analysis of language corpuses (often with the help of computers);

(ix) Mathematical linguistics studies the mathematical properties of language (usually through the use of mathematical concepts);

(x) Applied linguistics studies other areas of experience through the application of linguistics, especially foreign language learning and teaching;

(xi) Educational linguistics studies the use of language in mother-tongue education;

(xii) Stylistics studies the different varieties or styles of language in relation to their functions, especially the literary style in relation to literary effects;

(xiii) Forensic linguistics studies linguistic evidences for legal purposes;

(xiv) Clinical linguistics studies language disorders;

(xv) Translation studies (or translatology) studies cross-language, cross-cultural communication with the help of linguistics (and other disciplines).

1.2 Language

1.2.1 Definition of Language

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

(i) Language is a system because it is organized and operates according to rules or principles;

(ii) Language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between its form and meaning;

(iii) Language is vocal because its primary medium is sound (or voice);

(iv) Language is used for human communication because it is human-specific and mainly functions as a means of communication.

1.2.2 Origin of language

Linguists’ hypotheses of the origin of language include:

(i) Ding-Dong Theory: According to M. Müller, language developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to objects he encountered;

(ii) Sing-Song Theory: According to Otto Jespersen, language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise;

(iii) Pooh-Pooh Theory: According to L. H. Gray, language rose from interjections or exclamations expressing the speaker’s emotions;

(iv) Yo-He-Ho Theory: According to L. Noiré, language originated from the cries uttered during strain of work;

(v) Ta-Ta Theory: According to R. Paget, language came from the combination of some gestures and tongue movements.

(vi) Bow-Wow Theory: Language arose from imitation of animal cries or other natural sounds.

1.2.3 Design features of language

According to C. F. Hockett (1958), language has the following seven design features that set it apart from animal cry systems and make it human-specific:

(i) Arbitrariness: No logical connection between the sound and meaning of language;

(ii) Duality: The organization of language into two levels — a level of meaningless sounds which combine into a second level of meaningful larger units;

(iii) Productivity or creativity: Man’s ability to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in a language, including new sentences;

(iv) Interchangeability or reciprocity: The fact that man can both produce and receive messages and his role as speaker and hearer can be exchanged at ease;

(v) Displacement: The fact that language can be used to talk about things which are not here and now;

(vi) Specialization: The fact that language is a specialized activity and man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of speaking.

(vii) Cultural transmission: The fact that language is culturally instead of genetically transmitted.

1.2.4 Functions of language

Language can be used to perform the following functions:

(i) Phatic function/communion: To establish or maintain an atmosphere or social contact;

(ii) Directive function: To get the hearer to do something;

(iii) Informative function: To give information or to reason things out;

(iv) Interrogative function: To ask for information;

(v) Expressive function: To express the speaker’s attitudes or feelings;

(vi) Evocative function: To create certain feelings in the hearer;

(vii) Performative function: To perform acts or to do things.

1.3 Some Major Concepts in Linguistics:

1.3.1 Descriptive and prescriptive grammars

Descriptive grammar attempts to describe language as it is; prescriptive grammar prescribes how language should used.

1.3.2 Synchronic and diachronic linguistics

Synchronic linguistics studies language at a point in time; diachronic linguistics studies language through time or across time.

1.3.3 Langue and parole

    According to F. de Saussure who made this distinction from a sociological view of language, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; parole refers to the particular realizations of langue. (Langue is the social conventional side of language; parole is individualized speech. Langue is the code; parole is the message.) Langue and parole together constitute language.

1.3.4 Competence and performance

    According to Noam Chomsky who made this distinction from a psychological view of language, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations; performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, i.e. the actual use of this knowledge.

1.3.5 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations

    According to F. de Saussure who made this distinction, syntagmatic relation refers to the horizontal/positional relationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences; paradigmatic relation refers to the vertical/substitution relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.

1.3.6 Funcionalism and formalism

    Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations (e.g. Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar); functionalism is the study of the forms of language in reference to their functions (e.g. Halliday’s systemic functional grammar) .

Chapter Two

The Sounds of Language

2.1 Introduction

There are two branches of linguistics which study the sounds of language: phonetics and phonology.

2.2 Phonetics

(1) Definition of phonetics: Phonetics is the study of the characteristics of the sounds of language in terms of their production, transmission and perception;

    (2) Branches of phonetics:

(i) Articulatory phonetics studies speech sounds in terms of their production or articulation;

(ii) Accoustic phonetics studies speech sounds in terms of their transmission;

(iii) Auditory phonetics studies speech sounds in terms of their perception.

2.2.1 Articulators and their functions

The vocal organs consist of three parts:

(i) The lungs as the initiator of the air stream;

(ii) The vocal cords (and the glottis between them) inside the larynx as the producer of voice;

(iii) The three cavities as resonators — the pharynx, the nasal cavity (nose) and the oral cavity (mouth), the last of which includes velum (soft palate), hard palate, alveolar ridge (alveolum), tongue, teeth and lips.

2.2.2 Voiced and voiceless sounds

Voicing is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.

(i) Voiced sounds are produced when the vocal cords vibrate (e.g. [b], [m], [w], [v], [ð], [d], [n], [z], [l], [r], [ʒ], [ʤ], [j], [g], [ŋ], and the vowels);

(ii) Voiceless sounds are produced when the vocal cords do not vibrate (e.g. [p], [f], [Ǿ], [t], [s], [ʃ], [ʧ], [k], [h]) .

2.2.3 Nasal and oral sounds

Nasal feature is caused by the passage of the air through the nasal cavity.

(i) Nasal sounds are produced when the air passes through the nose (e.g. [m], [n], [ŋ]);

(ii) Oral sounds are produced when the air only pass through the mouth (e.g. [p], [b], [w], [f], [v], [Ǿ], [ð], [t], [d], [s], [z], [l], [r], [ʃ], [ʒ], [ʧ], [ʤ], [j], [k], [g], [h]) .

2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds

Speech sounds are often classified into consonants and vowels according to whether or not the air stream is obstructed in their production or articulation.

(i) Consonants are speech sounds in the production of which the air stream is obstructed (e.g. [p], [b], [m], [w], [f], [v], [Ǿ], [ð], [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l], [r], [ʃ], [ʒ], [ʧ], [ʤ], [j], [k], [g], [ŋ], [h]).

(ii) Vowels are speech sounds in the production of which the air stream is not obstructed (e.g. [i:], [ɪ], [e], [æ], [ə:], [ə], [u:], [ʊ], [ɔ:], [ɔ], [ʌ], [ɑ:], [ɪə], [eɪ], [ɛə], [aɪ], [aʊ] [əʊ], [ʊə], [ɔɪ]).

2.2.4.1 English consonants

English consonants can be classified according to their place of articulation (i.e. the involvement of the articulators in the production of a consonant where the air stream is most obstructed), the manner of articulation (i.e. the type of stricture involved in the production of a consonant or the particular way the air stream is obstructed), and the state of the vocal cords (i.e. whether they are voiced or not):

(1) According to the place of articulation, English consonants can be classified into the following types:

(i) Bilabials: speech sounds using both lips, e.g. [p], [b], [m], [w];

(ii) Labiodentals: speech sounds using the lower lip and the upper teeth, e.g. [f], [v];

(iii) (Inter)dentals: speech sounds using the tongue tip between the upper and lower teeth, e.g. [Ǿ], [ð];

(iv) Alveolars: speech sounds using the tongue front on the alveolar ridge, e.g. [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l], [r];

(v) Palatals: speech sounds involving the tongue center and the hard palate, e.g. [ʃ], [ʒ], [ʧ], [ʤ], [j];

(vi) Velars: speech sounds involving the tongue back and the soft palate, e.g. [k], [g], [ŋ];

(vii) Glottals: speech sounds involving the glottis and vocal cords, e.g. [h].

(2) According to the manner of articulation, English consonants can be classified into the following types:

(i) Affricates: speech sounds produced by stopping the air stream and then releasing it with friction, e.g. [ʧ], [ʤ];

(ii) Stops: speech sounds produced by stopping the air stream in the mouth and then releasing it abruptly through the mouth or releasing it slowly through the nose, e.g. [p], [b], [m], [t], [d], [n], [k], [g], [ŋ], including plosives or nasals:

(a) Plosives: speech sounds produced by stopping the air stream and then releasing it abruptly through the mouth, e.g. [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];

(b) Nasals: speech sounds produced by stopping the air stream in the mouth and then releasing it slowly through the nose, e.g. [m], [n], [ŋ];

(iii) Fricatives: speech sounds produced through a narrow opening with friction, e.g. [f], [v], [Ǿ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ], [h];

(vi) Approximants: speech sounds produced through a narrow opening or more openings with very little friction, e.g. [l], [r], [j], [w], including liquids and glides:

(a) Liquids: speech sounds produced with some obstruction of the air stream but with no real friction, e.g. [l], [r];

(b) Glides or semivowels: speech sounds produced with little obstruction of the air stream, e.g. [j], [w].

(3) According to the state of the vocal cords, English consonants can be grouped into two types:

(i) Voiced consonants: speech sound produced when the vocal cords vibrate (e.g. [b], [m], [w], [v], [ð], [d], [n], [z], [l], [r], [ʒ], [ʤ], [j], [g], [ŋ], and the vowels);

(ii) Voiceless consonants: speech sounds produced when the vocal cords do not vibrate (e.g. [p], [f], [Ǿ], [t], [s], [ʃ], [ʧ], [k], [h]) .

2.2.4.2 English vowels

English vowels can be classified according to the part of the tongue that is highest, the width of the mouth, the shape of the lips, the length of production, and the maintenance of shape.

(1) According to the part of the tongue that is highest, vowels can be classified into three types:

(i) Front vowels: vowels produced with the front part of the tongue highest, e.g. [i:], [ɪ], [e], [æ];

(ii) Central vowels: vowels produced with the central part of the tongue highest, e.g. [ə:], [ə];

(iii) Back vowels: vowels produced with the central part of the tongue highest, e.g. [u:], [ʊ], [ɔ:], [ɔ], [ʌ], [ɑ:].

(2) According to the width of the mouth, vowels can be classified into four types:

(i) Close vowels: vowels produced with the mouth close, e.g. [i:], [ɪ], [u:], [ʊ];

(ii) Semi-close vowels: vowels produced with the mouth half close, e.g. [e], [ə:], [ɔ:];

(iii) Semi-open vowels: [ə], [ɔ], [ʌ];

(iv) Open vowels: [æ], [ɑ:].

 

(3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into two types:

(i) Unrounded vowels: vowels produced with the lips unrounded, e.g. [i:], [ɪ], [e], [æ], [ə:], [ə], [ʌ], [ɑ:];

(ii) Rounded vowels: vowels produced with the lips rounded, e.g. [u:], [ʊ], [ɔ:], [ɔ].

(4) According to the length of production, vowels can be classified into two types:

(i) Long vowels: vowels produced long, e.g. [i:], [ə:], [u:], [ɔ:], [ɑ:];

(ii) Short vowels: vowels produced short, e.g. [ɪ], [e], [æ], [ə], [ʊ], [ɔ], [ʌ].

(5) According to maintenance of shape, vowels can be classified into two types:

(i) Monophthongs: vowels produced without shape changing, e.g. [i:], [ɪ], [e], [æ], [ə:], [ə], [u:], [ʊ], [ɔ:], [ɔ], [ʌ], [ɑ:];

(ii) Diphthongs: vowels produced with shape changing, e.g. [ɪə], [eɪ], [ɛə], [aɪ], [aʊ], [əʊ], [ʊə], [ɔɪ].

2.2.5 Variations of sounds

2.2.5.1 Liaison

    Liaison refers to the linking of the sounds of words in speech, in particular when the second word begins with a vowel, e.g. “here are” ([hɪərə]).

2.2.5.2 Elision and assimilation

(1) Elision refers to the loss of a sound or sounds in speech, e.g. pronouncing “suppose” as [sp əʊz];

(2) Assimilation: a phonological process whereby a sound becomes phonetically similar (or identical) to a neighboring sound, e.g. a vowel becomes [+nasal] when followed by a nasal consonant.

(i) Regressive assimilation: a process whereby a sound becomes phonetically similar to a following sound, e.g. a vowel becomes [+nasal] when followed by a nasal consonant.

(ii) Progressive assimilation: a process whereby a sound becomes phonetically similar to a precedinging sound, e.g. a vowel becomes [+nasal] when preceded by a nasal consonant.

2.3 Phonology

Phonology is the study of the patterns (or systems) and functions of speech sounds.

2.3.1 Phonemes: the phonological units of language

(1) Phoneme is a phonological unit distinctive in a particular language, e.g. /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/ in English.

(2) Allomorph is a phonetic form in which a phoneme is realized.

2.3.2 Minimal pairs and sets

(1) Minimal pair is a pair of words which differ from each other only by one sound, e.g. bet, bed; dig, dog.

(2) Minimal set is a set of words which differ from one another by one sound, e.g. big, dig, fig, pig, rig, wig; feat, fit, fate, fought, foot.

(3) Use of minimal pairs/sets: Minimal pairs/sets test is the test most often used for determining phonemes in a language; it is also frequently used in tests of English as a second language to determine the nonnative speakers’ ability to understand the contrast in meaning resulting from the minimal sound contrast.

2.3.2 Free variation

    When two or more sounds occur in the same position without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation. E.g., the first vowel in “economics” can be either [e] or [ɪ].

2.2.3 Distinctive features

A distinctive or phonemic feature is a feature which distinguishes one sound from another. E.g. voicing is a distinctive feature which distinguishes /b/ from /b/.

2.3.5 Syllables and consonant clusters

(1) A syllable is a phonetic and phonological unit which consists of one vowel (or vowel-like sound) with or without consonants before and after the vowel.

It can be divided into the optional onset (consonant(s)) and the rime (rhyme). The rhyme can be further divided into the obligatory nucleus or peak (one vowel) and the optional coda (consonant(s)).

(2) Syllables without a coda are called open syllables, e.g. go, do, tea; syllables with a coda are called closed syllables, e.g. up, bit, sixths.

(3) Sequences of consonants in the onset or coda of a syllable are called consonant clusters. They are respectively called initial, medial, and final clusters when they occur at the beginning, middle, and end of a word.

(4) In English, the onset may contain 1 to 3 consonants (in the case of 3 consonants, the first must be [s], the second must be [p], [t] or [k], the third must be [l], [r], [w], or [j]), e.g. man, brake, splash, spring, street, student; and the coda may have 1 to four consonants, e.g. man, beast, next, sixths.

2.3.6 Suprasegmental features

Suprasegmental features refer to phonological features which extend over several segments or phonemes, including stress, intonation, etc.

2.3.6.1 Stress

Stress refers to the intensity or prominence given to certain syllables in words or sentences. Stress is relative, and may thus be ranked primary or secondary in words or sentences.

Stress may have morphological, syntactic or pragmatic functions when it operates at word, sentence or utterance levels. E.g., the shift of stress from one syllable to another may change the class of a word (e.g., from a verb to a noun).

2.3.6.2 Intonation 

Intonation refers to the variation in pitch and stress which gives beat and rhythm to the tune the voice plays in ordinary speech.

Intonation reflects the function of an utterance: whether it is a question, statement, command or request. It also indicates the speaker’s attitude or implied meaning.

Chapter Three

Morphology

3.1 Introduction、

Morphology is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.

3.2 Morphemes

(1) Definition of morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest unit of langue that carries a meaning or grammatical function.

   (2) Classification of morphemes: Morphemes are usually classified into different types according to three criteria:

 (i) According to their function (i.e. whether they can form new words), morphemes can be classified into derivational and inflectional morphemes. Derivational morphemes are those which can be used to form a new word, e.g. duc, pre-, -ive, -ly; inflectional morphemes are those which indicate a change of grammatical function of the stem or base, e.g. -s, -ing, -ed.

   (ii) According to their status (i.e. whether they are central), morphemes can be classified into roots and affixes. Roots are morphemes with a fixed and fixed meaning, e.g. dog, eat, ceiv, duc, vid. Affixes are morphemes with a minor meaning or function, e.g. ad-, pro-, re-, -ive, -er, -ed, -ing. Affixes consist of several types: prefixes (those occurring before the base or stem of a word), infixes (those occurring within the base), and suffixes (those occurring after the base).

 (iii) According to their mobility (i.e. whether they can be used as words), morphemes can be classified into free and bound morphemes. (For details of free and bound morphemes, see 3.2.1 and 3.2.2. below.)

3.2.1 Free morphemes

Free morphemes are morphemes which can be used alone as words, e.g. a, man, run, off. Some free morphemes are lexical morphemes and belong to the open class of words including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and some adverbs; other free morphemes are functional morphemes and belong to the closed class of words including conjunctions, articles, prepositions and pronouns.

3.2.2 Bound morphemes

    Bound morphemes are morphemes that cannot be used alone as words, e.g. -ly, -ed, -er, -s, -ing. Some bound morphemes are derivational morphemes, e.g. ad-, en-, pre-, -ly, -ness, -or; others are inflectional morphemes, e.g. -ed, -s, -ing, -er, -est.

3.3 Morphs and Allomorphs

(1) Definition of morph: Morph is a phonetic (spoken) or orthographic (written) form which realizes a morpheme (and is the smallest unit of parole that carries a meaning or function). E.g., the morphs realizing the morpheme of plurality {-s} include -s ([-z]), [-s]), -es ([-ɪz]), etc.

(2) Definition of allomorph: Allomorph is one of the morphs which realize the same morpheme. E.g. [-z] can be said to be an allomorph of the morpheme of plurality {-s}.

3.4 Types of Word Formation

Word formation refers to the creation of new words through a certain operation on existing forms as stems or bases. The most important ways of word formation include compounding and derivation.

Stem is the base to which an affix is to be attached to form a new word.

3.4.1 Compounding

(1) Compounding is a process of forming a compound word from two or more existing roots or words as bases.

Formula: Word → Base 1+ Base 2 (+Base 3…); Base → {Root, Word }

(In the formula, “→” means “is formed from” or “rewrites as”.)

(2) Compounds may belong to the word class of one of its bases (especially the word class of its head if it has a head). E.g., “bird” is a noun, and “blackbird” is also a noun; “walk” is a verb, and “sleep-walk” is also a verb; “blue” is an adjective, and “dark-blue” is also an adjective. (There are mainly three types of compounds: noun, verb and adjective compounds.)

3.4.2 Derivation

(1) Derivation is a process of forming a derivative from an existing root or word as its base and an affix of a certain kind.

Formula: Word → Base + Affix; Base → {Root, Word } ; Affix → {Prefix, Suffix, Infix}

(2) Derivatives may or may not belong to the word class of its base, since the affix may or may not change the meaning and/or grammatical function of its base. E.g. while “return” is still a verb like “turn”, “careful” is an adjective and is not a noun like “care”.

3.4.3 Other ways of word formation

3.4.3.1 Conversion (zero derivation)

Conversion is a process of forming a word of a different class from an existing word of a certain class as its base and a zero affix or stress-shift affix.

Formula: Word → Base + Affix; Base → {Root, Word} ; Affix → {Zero Affix, Stress-shift Affix}

E.g. paper (v.) → paper (n.); record (n.) → record (v.).

3.4.3.2 Backformation

Backformation is a process of forming a new word by removing an imagined affix from a word as the base.

Formula: Word → Base － Affix; Base → Imaginary Derivative Word; Affix → Imaginary Affix

E.g., edit → editor; televise → television; lase → laser

3.4.3.3 Clipping

Clipping is a process of forming a new word by cutting off a part or parts of its base. E.g., bus → omnibus; fridge → refrigerator; bike → bicycle.

3.4.3.4 Blending

    Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining and clipping parts of two or more words as its bases. E.g., motel → motor + hotel; smog → smoke + fog.

3.4.3.5 Acronym

Acronyms are words formed from the first letters of a series of words as its bases and pronounced as single words. E.g., NATO → North Atlantic Treaty Organization; laser → light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

3.4.3.6 Initialism

Initialisms are words formed from the first letters of a series of words as its bases and pronounced by letters. E.g., ATM → automatic teller machine; www → world wide web.

Chapter 4

Syntax

4.1 Introduction

(1) Definition of syntax: Syntax is the study of the structure and ordering of components of a sentence.

(2) A sequence of words is well formed or grammatical (i.e. is a sentence) when it observes the rules of syntax; it is ill formed or ungrammatical when it violates the syntactic rules.

4.2 Word Classes

(1) The position of a word in a sentence depends on its grammatical category or word class (part of speech). (On the other hand, the position of a word in a sentence helps to determine its word class.)

(2) There are several word classes, i.e. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, etc. 

 4.3 The Prescriptive Approach

    The prescriptive approach to grammar views grammar as a set of rules for the “proper” use of a language. For example, this approach claims that the structure of English sentences should be like the structure of sentences in Latin, thus:

     (a) You must not split infinitives;

     (b) You must not end a sentence with a preposition.

     Though it is valuable to be aware of the proper use of a language such as English, English usage should not be based on Latin.

4.4 The Descriptive Approach

    The descriptive approach attempts to describe the regular structures of a language as it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used. Various techniques may be employed in this approach.

4.4.1 Structural analysis

    Structural analysis is one type of descriptive approach to study the distribution of linguistic forms in a language, which involves the use of “test-frames” (which can be sentences with empty slots in them). Those linguistic forms which fit in the same test-frames (e.g. (a) The ______makes a lot of noise. (b) I heard a ______ yesterday.) are likely to belong the same grammatical category.

4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis

    Immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis) is a method of descriptive analysis of (the constituent structures) of language. Based on the idea that linguistic units (as structures or constructions) can be parts of larger structures and may themselves be composed smaller parts, it always divides a structure (usually by using binary cutting) into its immediate constituents (i.e. its smaller parts) until obtaining its ultimate constituents (parts that cannot be divided any more).

     IC analysis is often represented by tree diagrams or brackets (with or without labels). It can be used to represent ambiguities (different interpretations) of certain constructions. For example, “old men and women” could be interpreted either as (a) “old men and women of any age” or (b) “old men and old women”. These could be represented by two different bracketings or tree diagrams:

 

(a) [[[old] [men]] [and] [women]]     (b) [[old][[men] [and] [women]]]  old  men  and  women            old  men and women

4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar

(1) A constituent structure grammar (or syntax) is a grammar which looks at sentences as a hierarchy of structural levels, based on the idea of constituency (i.e. that a whole or a structure consists of parts or constituent structures).

(2) IC analysis is a type of constituent structure grammar which “analyzes” sentences into constituent structures in order to “discover” the structure of sentences. In contrast, a generative grammar is a grammar which “generates” or “derives” sentences from its constituent structures according to certain grammatical rules.

(3) Phrase structure rules are a type of syntactic rules representing the constituent structures of sentences and smaller constructions within sentences. They together with some lexical selection rules may be used to generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences.

A structure of a certain category (e.g. a sentence or S, a noun phrase or NP, a verb phrase or VP, a prepositional phrase or PP) may involve recursion, i.e. the embedding of a smaller structure of a category in a larger structure of the same category. For example, an S embedded in a larger S embedded in a still larger S (e.g. I know you know I know it.); a PP embedded in a larger PP embedded in a still larger PP embedded in a still larger PP (e.g. in a room in that building in that city in China).

(4) A generative grammar alone may not adequately account for some features of language, such as the discontinuity of elements in a construction, e.g. clean the room up (=clean up the room), and the relationship between certain sentences, especially active and passive sentences, e.g. “Brian hit George” and “George was hit by Brian”. Thus a transformational-generative grammar was proposed by Noam Chomsky.

4.6 Transformational Grammar

Transformational(-generative) grammar (TGG) is a linguistic theory proposed by Noam Chomsky in the late 1950s. The theory underwent several developments from its first model to the sixth model: the “classical theory”, the “standard theory”, the “extended standard theory”, the “revised extended standard theory”, the “theory of government and binding”, and the “Minimalist Program”. The following is a brief account of the syntactic aspect of the first two models of TGG.

(1) The classical theory:

The model of the classical theory consists of three parts: a set of phrase structure rules, transformation rules, and morphophonemic rules.

(i) Phrase structure rules are a formalized system of rules representing the constituent structures of sentences and smaller constructions within sentences. They may be used to generate some “kernel” sentences. E.g. S → NP+Aux+VP.

(ii) Transformational rules are a set of rules for transforming kernel sentences into a number of related sentences. E.g. NP1+Aux+V+NP2→NP2+Aux+be+en+V+by+NP1.

(iii) The morphophonemic rules are a set of rules applied to the output of the transformational rules to provide the correct morphological shape and phonological form for it. E.g. these rules might turn “be+en+V” into “has been repaired”.

(2) The standard theory:

In this standard theory, Chomsky mad explicit a number of assumptions: (i) The distinction between competence and performance (see Chapter 1). (ii) The idea of two levels of syntactic structure: deep and surface structures. Deep structure is the abstract syntactic representation of sentences, which looks like the constituent structure tree and is called “lexicalized phrase marker”; surface structure is the form of the sentence that people can actually speak in.

The standard theory consists of a “base component” and a “transformational component”.

(i) The “base component” consists of a set of “phrase structure rules” and a “lexicon”. The former accounts for various aspects of the constituent structure and produce a phrase structure or phrase marker, and the latter provides items which are selected and inserted into the phrase marker. The result of these operations is the “deep structure” of the sentence. The “meaning” of a sentence is interpreted from its deep structure.

(ii) The “transformational component consists of transformational rules which transform the deep structure into a “surface structure”. The surface structure is given a “phonological interpretation”.

4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar

Systemic functional grammar (SFG) is a theory of language rooted in the work of J. R. Firth and developed mainly by M. A. K. Halliday. Unlike TGG, which studies language out of its context, SFG relate linguistic structures to language functions in its context.

According to Halliday, language performs three metafunctions in its context:

(i) Ideational function: This refers to the function of language in which we conceptualize the world of experience for our own and others’ benefit. Each sentence or clause is a representation of a type of process, such as a material process (e.g. He kicked the stone), a mental process (e.g. I like her), a relational process (e.g. he is homeless), a behavioral process (e.g. She laughed), a verbal process (e.g. I said “hello”), and an existential process (There is a desk over there).

(ii) Interpersonal function: This refers to the function of language to establish and maintain social and personal relations, including communication roles such as questioner and respondent, and to express the language user’s own attitudes and comments on the content of an utterance.

(iii) Textual function: This refers to the function of language to make links with itself and with features of its context of situation. This is what enables a speaker to construct a text and makes a hearer to distinguish the text from a random set of sentences. When we speak we construct our clause so as to present the information in a certain way, usually in an order of “given-new”, or “theme-rheme”, e.g. [Context: Please say something about the rain last night.] “The rain was heavy”.