Chapter Two Phonology

一、定义

1.宽式音标Broad transcription

The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.

2.窄式音标Narrow transcription

The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.

3.清音Voiceless

When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.

4.浊音Voicing

Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.

5.元音Vowel

The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.

6.辅音Consonants

The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.

7.音位Phoneme

The basic unit in phonology, it’s a collection of distinctive phonetic features.

8.音位变体Allophones

Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.

9.音素phone

A phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it’s a speech sound we use when speaking a language.

10.最小对立对Minimal pair

When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.

11.超切分特征Suprasegmental

The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.

12.互补分布complementary distribution    P35

Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.

13.语言的语音媒介Phonic medium of language

 The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.

 在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。

14.爆破音stops

When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.

they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]

二、知识点

1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.

2. of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing.

3.Phonetic  组成

 ⑴Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学longest established, mostly developed

 ⑵Auditory   phonetics  听觉语音学

 ⑶Acoustic   phonetics  声学语音学

4.articulatoryApparatus /Organs of Speech

Pharyngeal cavity– 咽腔

Oral ...–      口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here

Nasal …– 鼻腔

5.The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French.

6.Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of[k] and[g],the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound[j];the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds[t]and[d].

7.nasal consonants: [m] / [n] / [η] 

9. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.

10.Sequential rules例子

If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:

⑴the first phoneme must be /s/

⑵the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/

⑶the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w

11.English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone

三、问答题

1.what are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound?

Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.

Auditory-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.

Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.

发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。

听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。

声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。

2.how are the English consonants classified?

  By place of articulation and By manner of articulation

3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why?

语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?

Phonetics —description  of all speech sounds and their find differences.

Phonology —description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish  meaning.

A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning.

4.what’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?

Phone—a speech sound ,a phonetic unit.

Phoneme---a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit.

Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.

5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?

Minimal pair—two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.

除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合.

Minimal set—a group of sound combinations with the above feature.

一组具有上述特征的语音组合.

By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes.

通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位.

6.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ?

  Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound.

  Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.

7.explain the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule.

有序规则Sequential rules 

Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.

同化规则Assimilation rules

The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.

省略规则Deletion rule

It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.

Chapter Three Morphology

一、定义

1.词素Morpheme

 The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.

2.自由词素Free Morpheme

  Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.

3.黏着词素Bound morphemes

  Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.

4.词根Root

  Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.

5.词缀Affix

  The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.

6.曲折词缀inflectional affixes

  The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.

7.派生词缀Derivational affixes

 The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.

8.词干Stem

  A stem is  the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.

9.形态学规则Morphological rules

  They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word.

10.前缀Prefix

  Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes ‘be-‘ and ‘en(m)-‘

11.后缀Suffix

  Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization.

二、知识点   

                    Inflectional morphology

1.Morphology                    

                    Derivational morphology          

                    Free morphemes

Morphemes                             Root

                 Bound morphemes           Inflectional affixes     

                                             Affixes                                  Prefix

                                                          Derivational affixes  

2.some words maybe said to contain a root morpheme.             Suffix

4.Compound features:

⑴orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between.

⑵Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element.

⑶semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its component 

Chapter Four   Syntax

一、定义

1.句子sentence

A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.

2.语言运用Linguistic competence

The system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.

3.谓语Predicate

The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.

4.定式子句Finite Clause

A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone.

5.从属子句Embedded Clause (E C)

In a complete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an E C .

6.主要子句Matrix Clause

In a complexed sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.

7.层次结构Hierarchical structure

The  sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.

8.语法关系Grammatical relations

The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence.

9.句法类型Syntactic category

 A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object.

10.表层结构S-structure

A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.

11.深层结构D-structure

A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement.

12.普遍语法General grammar

A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language.

13.移动α 规则Move α

  A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.

14.句法移位Syntactic movement

  Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position.

15.转换原则Transformation rules

  Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.

16.X标杆理论X-bar theory

  A general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single format :X”→（Spec）X(Compl).

一种泛指的、高度抽象的图示，它把所有的词组结构规则概括为一种程式

X”→（Spec）X(Compl)

 

   a:        X”                    b: X”      Spec X’

 Spec      X’                        X’       X compl

        X          complement  

 

NP ’the student who likes linguistics’ consists of Det, N and S with Det being the Specifier ,N the head, S the complement. NP(…)有冠词、名词和子句组成，冠词是指示语，名词是核心词，子句是补足语。

二、知识点

1.syntax这个单词源于Greek,本义是arrangement.

2.我们把syntax的学习看作 a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentence.

3.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge.

4.判断题：the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number ,and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.

5.判断题:A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood.

一个限定动词被非正式称为句中主要动词，表达了人称、数、时态、语气限定的存在、行动或事件。

6.句子的分类             simple sentence

 Types of sentences   coordinate or compound sentence

                                Complex sentence

简单句---It consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.

并列句合成句-It contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “but”, ”and”. ect.

复合句—It contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.

复合句的特点：

  ⑴An embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause

⑵Most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a Subordinator, such as ”that”

⑶An embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.

  子句是一个语法单位，大部分子句要带一个被称为从属连词的引导词，如果子句作为秒年第秒年句单独存在，它可能不是一个合乎规范的句子，除非改变他的形式。

7.when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence.

8.The hierarchical nature of sentence structure句子结构层次特点

sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase NP or verb phrase VP, grouped together.

 9.The points at which the tree braches at various levels are called Branching    nodes分叉点

10.In addition to the use of structural tree diagrams, linguists may show the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets and subscript labels.

11.句法类型                   

                         Major …主要词类open ,can add new words

         Lexical category         名、动、形、副词N,V,Adj,Adv  

Syntactic                Minor… 次要词类close, words are fixed

Categories                限定、助动、介、代、连、叹Det,Aux,Prep,Pron,Conj,Int

       Phrasal category

Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word(called a lexical category) or a phrase(called phrasal category)that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence.

12.短语类型

    Noun Phrase       NP 

Phrasal      Verb Phrase        VP   

Categories   Preposition Phrase  PP   

              Adjective Phrase     AP

13.The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each moun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb, in many cases, grammatical relations refer virtually to ’who’ does ’what ’to ’whom’.

14.we usually refer to the grammatical relations as subject of and direct object of.

15.Combinational rules must be small in number so as not to create extra burdens on the human memory. also these rules must be powerful enough to yield all the possible sentences, and rule out the impossible ones

组合规则一定不能太多，以免给人的记忆带来过多的负担，用这些规则必须能组合出所有可能的句子，而排除不可能的句子。

16.rules an generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties. It captures the ability of language to generate more constituents to a sentence and enables speakers to repeat syntactic constituents within the same sentence.

循环性体现了语言中的句子能有更多的成分，使说话者能在同一句子中重复一些句法成分。

17.移位类型

Syntactic   NP-movement=t’s involving the movement of a noun phrase.

Movement   名词短语的移位

                 WH-movement=It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.

                陈述变疑问句

               AUX-…=the movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentence initial position.

             助动词移位到句首的移位  

18.普遍语法的广义原则

General Principles of Universal Grammar: Case Condition和Adjacency Condition

格条件---a noun phrase must have Case and Case is assigned by V or P to the object position, or by AUX to the subject position.

名词词组必须有格，宾语的格是由动词或介词决定，而主语的格由助动词决定。

相邻条件—a case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other,it explains why no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object.

格分派者和格接受者要相邻。这解释了为什么任何别的词组类不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之间。

19.Universal Grammar is believed to contain a parameter with the valves增and减set on the Adjacency condition. with English-type languages, the Adjacency Parameter is set to the增 value, while for French-type language, the parameter is set to减value.

三、问答题

1.Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences.

⑴the tower on the hill collapsed in the wind

⑵Mary promised John to see the doctor.