现代语言学第六章
(2009-11-17 14:15:59)
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1,What is pragmatics? 语用学
Pragmatcs can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.语用学研究语言使用者是如何运用语句进行成功的交际。由于交际过程本质上是一个在一定的语境内传递意义的过程,语用学也可以看作是一种意义研究。
Pragmatics is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics; its development and establishment in the 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics.语用学是语言学领域中一个比较新兴的研究分支;发展形成于20世纪60年代和70年代,主要是语言学,尤其是语义学研究延伸的结果。
2,Pagmatics vs. Semantics语用学与语义学
Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.语用学与语义学的相同点是,两者都是对意义的研究。它们的根本区别是,语义学研究不涉及语境,研究的是语言的抽象意义;语用学研究涉及语境,研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。
3,Context语境
The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.语境是语用研究的关键概念,一般是指交际双方的共有知识。共有知识分为两类,一类是交际者对所有语言本身的知识,另一类是对客观世界的知识,包括对客观世界的一般知识和对交际情景的具体知识。
Without this shared knowledge, linguistic communication would be impossibe, and without considering this knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense.没有共有知识,就不可能有语言交际;不考虑语境,就不能对语言交际作出令人满意的语用解释。
4,Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning句子意义与话语意义
While the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simple in a context.句子意义是抽象的,是不依赖语境的;而话语意义是具体的,是依赖语境的。话语意义基于句子意义,是句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现。
5,Speech act theroy言语行为理论
Speech act theory is an
imp
Constatives vs. performatives表述句与施为句
Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable; performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. The following are the four examples Austin used to illustrate this point:表述句要么用于陈述,要么用于描述,可以验证;另一方面,施为句既不陈述事实,也不描述情况,且不能验证。四个经典例句:
“I do.”
“I name this ship Elizabeth.”
“I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.”
“I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.”
Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.言内行为是说出词、短语、分句的行为,是通过句法、词汇和音位等手段表达字面意义行为。
Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.言外行为是表达说话人意图的行为,是在说话过程中完成的行为。
Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.言后行为是说话所完成或由说话产生的行为,是由话语所带来的结果或变化。The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance.言后行为是指说话人所说话语的结果。
Of the three speech acts, linguists are most intereated in the illocutionary act because this kind of speech act is in agreement with the speaker’s intention.
On
Representatives: stating or describing,saying what the speaker believes to be true.阐述类:说话人进行陈述或描写,说自己相信是真实的话
Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something.指令类:说话人试图让听话人做某件事。
Commissives: committing the speaker
himself to some future course of
act
Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.表达类:说话人对现存事态表明自己的感受或态度。
Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something.宣告类:说话人通过说话使现有的事态马上发生变化。
Representatives: The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something’s being the case, to the truth of what has been said. Stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.阐述类的言外之力是使说话人对自己所说的内容的真实性作出承诺。陈述、相信、发誓、假设都是典型的阐述类。
Directives: Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, ordering are all specific instances of this class.指令类是言外之力是说话人试图让听话人做某事。邀请、建议、请求、警告、威胁、命令都是典型的指令类。
Commissives: Commissives are those
illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some
future course of act
Expressives: The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. Like apologizing, thanking, congratulating.表达类的言外之力是对话所表明的事态表达说话人的心理状态。比如:道歉、致谢、祝贺。
Declarations: Declarations have the characteristic that the successful performance of such an act brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality宣告类的特点在于此类行为的顺利实施使得客观现实与所表达的命题内容相一致。
注:
All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or the same illocutionary point, but they have different strength or force.所有属于同一类型的言外行为都有着相同的目的或言外之力,但它们在力度或力量上有差别。
Utterances that serve the same purpose may vary in their syntactc form.所有用于同样目的的话语在句法形式上可以有所不同。
6,Principles of conversation会话原则
Paul Grice is an American logician and philosopher. His idea is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the Coorperative Principle, which is shortened as CP.美国逻辑学家和哲学家保罗*格莱斯发现形式逻辑对自然语言不适用并因此认为自然语言有自己的逻辑。他的观点是:在会话中,参与会话的人首先得愿意合作,否则,会话就无法进行。这条基本原则叫做合作原则,简称CP。
Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.交际者在交际中要按照交际双方共同接受的目标或方向,在交际过程中提供所需的且符合交际目的的信息。
To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:更确切的说,这条基本原则包括四条准则:
The maxim of quantity数量准则
Make your contribution as informative as required(for the current purpose of the exchange).
Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
1,所说的话应包含(当前交谈目的)所需要的信息
2,所说的话不应包含超出需要的信息
The maxim of quality质量准则
Do not say what you believe to the false.
Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
1,不要说自知是虚假的话
2,不要说缺乏足够证据的话
The maxim of relation关联准则
Be relevant 要有关联
The maxim of manner方式准则
Avoid obscurity of
expr
Avoid ambiguity
Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity)
Be orderly.
1,避免晦涩
2,避免歧义
3,说话要简练(避免啰嗦)
4,要有条理
The significance of Grice’s CP lies in
that it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more
than is literally said. As pragmatics focues on the conveyance of
meaning in the course of communication, CP is undoubtedly an
imp