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外语教学法第二章

(2009-11-17 14:10:40)
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杂谈

 Phonology

1,What is phonetics?

Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介,即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

There are three branches of phonetics. They are articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics.发音语音学,听觉语音学,声学语音学

 

2,Orthographic representation of speech sounds----broad and narrow transcriptions语音的正字标音法----宽式标音法和严式标音法

There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds.

One is the transcription with letter-symbols only. This is called broad transcription. (it is normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.)

The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is called narrow transcription. (it is really the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.)

 

3,Classification of English speech sounds:

Speech sounds can be divided into two broad categories: vowels and consonants.

(1)Classification of English consonants

According to manner of articulation, the English consonants can be classified into stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides.爆破音,擦音,塞擦音,流音,鼻音,滑音

According to place of articulation, they can be classified into bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.双唇音,唇齿音,齿音,齿痕音,腭音,软腭音,喉音

(2)Classification of English vowels

According to the position of the tongue, vowels may be distinguished as front vowels, central vowels, back vowels.

According to how wide the mouth is opened, vowels are classified into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.

According to the shape of the lips, vowels may be classified as rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.圆唇元音和不圆唇元音

According to the length of the sound vowels can also be classified long vowels and short vowels. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels.长元音和短元音/紧元音和松元音

Monophthongs and diphthongs单元音和双元音

 

4,Phonology and phonetics音位学和语音学

Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds, but they differ in their approach and focus.

Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human language.

 

5,Phone, phoneme and allophone音素,音位,音位变体

Phone: Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when spesking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t.我们可以简单的把音素定义为我们在用一种语言讲话时所使用的声音。音素是一个语音单位或切分成分。它不一定要区别意义:有的可以,有的则不行。

Phoneme: (Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.) The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.音位学关心的是能够区别意义的语音现象。音位学中最基本的单位叫音位,这是一种具有意义甄别价值的单位,也是一个抽象的单位。准确的讲,音位不是一个具体的声音,而是一些语音区别特征的集合。

In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone.在实际会话中,音位总是以某个音素的形式得以体现出来。

Allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.在不同的语音环境中能够代表同一个音位的不同音素叫作音位的音位变体。 

 

6,Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair音位对立,互补分布和最小对立对

Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.音位对立是指音位之间的关系。如果两个音位出现在相同场合并具有区别意义,那么它们就说处于音位对立状态。

Complementary distribution: If two allophones of the same phoneme occur in the different environment and distinguish meaningare, they said to be in complementary distribution.两个来自相同音位的音位变体,在不同的场合出现,具有区别意义的作用,就具有互补分布的特点。

Minimal pairs: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.如果两个不同的语音组合,除了在相同的位置有一个语音切分不同之外,其他任何方面都相同,那么这两个语音组合就被认为形成了一个最小独立对。

 

7,Some rules in phonology

Sequential rules: The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.在某种特定的语言里存在着一些规则制约着声音的组合。

Assimilation rules: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a festure of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.同化规则是指一个语音受同一音位序列中另外一个音素的影响,从而“复制”另外一个音素的某种特征,结果使得两个音素非常相似。

Deletion rule: It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.省略规则告诉我们一个音素在什么样的情况下应该省略,尽管它在拼写上可能依然存在。

注:例子

 

8,Suprasegmental features: stress, tone, intonation

Suprasemental features: Distinctive features can also be found over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental phonemes; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone and intonation.在两个或者更多的音位切分序列层面上同样可以找到一些识别性特征。这些发生在切分层面以上的音位特征叫作超切分特征;它们指的是象音节、单词和句子这样的语言单位的音位特点。主要的超切分特征包括重音,语调和声调。

Stress: Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress.

Word stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is pronounced with greater force than the other or others.当我们说一个单词的某个音节重读了的时候,我们实际上是在说,这个音节要读的比另外的一个或数个更重一些。附:4,5.

Sentence stress: sentence stress refers to the relative force which is given to the words in a sentence. Some words are more important than other words, and the more important words are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. The more important words in English are nouns, main verds, adjectives, adverbs and demonstratve pronouns; the other categories of words like articles, personal pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepostions, and conjunctions are usually not stressed. To give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in a sentence that is usually unstressed can also be stress.

Tone: Tones sre pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes; therefore, the tone is a suprasegmental feature. 声调是由于声带振动的速率的不同而引起的音高变化。音高变化可以象音位一样区别意义,因此,声调也是一个超切分特征。

Intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rether than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.句子中除了孤立的单词之外,还被附加了音高、重音和音长等因素,所有这些东西统称为语调。

 

附:

1,Speech and writing are the two media or substances used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.

2,Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing.

3,IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标

4,Stress is a relative notion; only words with two or more syllable can be said to have word stress, and monosyllabic words (words of only one syllable), can not be said to have word stress.重音是一个相对的概念,只有两个或两个音节以上的单词才可以说有单词重音,单音节的单词,即只有一个音节的单词,是不可能有单词重音的。

5,Some languages have fixed word stress, i.e.(that is) the stress of a word always falls on a certain syllable, but English does not. In English, word stress is free; it is not fixed on any particular syllable of a word; its position varies from word to word.

The location of stress in English distinguishes mesning.

6,The meaning – distinctive function of the tone is especially important in tone languages. English is not a tone language, but an intonation language. Chinese is a typical tone language. It has four tones: the level, the rise, the fall-rise and the fall. Tone is especially impotant in Chinese because it distinguishes meaning at the word level.

7,Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. English has four types of intonation, which are known as the four tones: the falling tone, the risng tone, the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone. The most frequently used tones are the first three. 语调在任何语言里有发挥着传导意义的作用,尤其是在象英语这样的语言里。英语里共有四种基本语调类型,即大家所知的那四种语调:降调,升调,降升调,升降调。使用最广泛的是前三种语调。

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