©lovecare按语：

今年6月19日大学英语四级阅读Caught in the Web，文章出自《washingtonpost》2006/11/10。

六级阅读Obama's success isn't all good news for black Americans，文章出自《newscientist》，需要注册或付费阅读，但是另一个网站有转贴。

去年的完形填空出自Newsweek。

所以，建议多读英美的报刊文章，或访问其网站。

AS ERIN WHITE watched the election results head towards victory for Barack Obama, she felt a burden lifting from her shoulders. "In that one second, it was a validation for my whole race," she recalls.

"I've always been an achiever," says White, who is studying for an MBA at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee. "But there had always been these things in the back of my mind questioning whether I really can be who I want. It was like a shadow, following me around saying you can only go so far. Now it's like a barrier has been let down."

White's experience is what many psychologists had expected - that Obama would prove to be a powerful role model for African Americans. Some hoped his rise to prominence would have a big impact on white Americans, too, challenging those who still harbour racist sentiments. "The traits that characterise him are very contradictory to the racial stereotypes that black people are aggressive and uneducated," says Ashby Plant of Florida State University. "He's very intelligent and eloquent."

Sting in the tail

Plant is one of a number of prescient psychologists who seized on Obama's candidacy to test hypotheses about the power of role models. Their work is already starting to reveal how the "Obama effect" is changing people's views and behaviour. Perhaps surprisingly, it is not all good news: there is a sting in the tail of the Obama effect.

But first the good news. Barack Obama really is a positive role model for African Americans, and he was making an impact even before he got to the White House. Indeed, the Obama effect can be surprisingly immediate and powerful, as Ray Friedman of Vanderbilt University and his colleagues discovered.

They tested four separate groups at four key stages of Obama's presidential campaign. Each group consisted of around 120 adults of similar age and education, and the test assessed their language skills. At two of these stages, when Obama's success was less than certain, the tests showed a clear difference between the scores of the white and black participants - an average of 12.1 out of 20, compared to 8.8, for example. When Obama fever was at its height, however, the black participants performed much better. Those who had watched Obama's acceptance speech as the Democrats' presidential candidate performed just as well, on average, as the white subjects. After his election victory, this was true of all the black participants (Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2009.03.012).

Dramatic shift

What can explain this dramatic shift? At the start of the test, the participants had to declare their race and were told their results would be used to assess their strengths and weaknesses. This should have primed the subjects with "stereotype threat" - an anxiety that their results will confirm negative stereotypes, which has been shown to damage the performance of African Americans.

Obama's successes seemed to act as a shield against this. "We suspect they felt inspired and energised by his victory, so the stereotype threat wouldn't prove a distraction," says Friedman.

That chimes with White's personal account of how her mental baggage was lifted on election night. "I feel like I can go outside my scope more," she says, and has demonstrated this by volunteering for a local charity - something she had never done before.

Lingering racism

If the Obama effect is positive for African Americans, how is it affecting their white compatriots? Is the experience of having a charismatic black president modifying lingering racist attitudes? There is no easy way to measure racism directly; instead psychologists assess what is known as "implicit bias", using a computer-based test that measures how quickly people associate positive and negative words - such as "love" or "evil" - with photos of black or white faces. A similar test can also measure how quickly subjects associate stereotypical traits - such as athletic prowess or mental ability - with a particular group.

In a study that will appear in the Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Plant's team tested 229 students during the height of Obama-mania. They found that implicit bias had fallen by as much as 90 per cent compared with the level found in a similar study in 2006 (DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.018). "That's an unusually large drop," Plant says.

While the team can't be sure their results are due solely to Obama, they also showed that those with the lowest bias were likely to subconsciously associate black skin colour with political words such as "government" or "president". This suggests that Obama was strongly on their mind, says Plant.

Drop in bias

Brian Nosek of the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, who runs a website that measures implicit bias using similar tests, has also observed a small drop in bias in the 700,000 visitors to the site since January 2007, which might be explained by Obama's rise to popularity. However, his preliminary results suggest that change will be much slower coming than Plant's results suggest.

Other studies have shown that the Obama effect has a downside, as some had feared. Daniel Effron at Stanford University in California asked a group of 99 students of mixed ethnicity to decide whether a white or a black person would be more suitable for a job in a police force characterised by racial tension. The participants also had to express their support for either Obama or John McCain as president by circling a picture of the candidate. Some performed this before the hiring task, some performed it afterwards.

The team found that those who had expressed support for Obama before the task were more likely to prefer a white candidate for the police job than the people who expressed their support for Obama after the task. Effron suggests that expressing support for Obama gave the subjects the "moral credentials" to air a potentially racist view. They may have felt that having proven themselves to be unprejudiced they could let their guard down in the subsequent task. The people who expressed their support for Obama after the task didn't have these credentials during the activity, so they kept their guard up (Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol 45, p 590).

Talking honestly

"People now have the opportunity of expressing support for Obama every day," says Effron. "Our work raises the concern that people may now be more likely to raise negative views of African Americans." On the other hand, he says, it may just encourage people to talk more honestly about their feelings regarding race issues, which may not be such a bad thing.

Another part of the study suggests far more is at stake than the mere expression of views. The team asked 100 students to allocate $100,000 between two charities that serve either white or black communities. They were also told that the black charity had already received some money from another fund - giving those with racist motives for denying it money a plausible explanation for their actions. Once again, the subjects had to endorse Obama or McCain either before or after the task. After the exercise, the team asked them to complete a questionnaire designed to reveal their prejudices.

Strongest prejudices

On average, those who endorsed Obama first went on to give more money to the white charity, compared with those who endorsed Obama later. The effect was most marked among those with the strongest prejudices; the people who were least prejudiced according to the questionnaire gave more money to the black charity if they had endorsed Obama first.

As the team points out, these simple tests reflect real-world situations. Immediately after voting for the presidential candidate, for instance, millions of Americans went on to vote for candidates for other offices and for various propositions. Those who voted for Obama despite having lingering racist views may well have gone on to favour whites in their subsequent decisions.

Those who voted for Obama feel freer to behave in a racist manner
Yet more evidence (see graph) that the Obama effect may have a negative side emerged with a study showing that just one week after Obama was elected president, participants were less ready to support policies designed to address racial inequality than they had been two weeks before the election (Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol 45, p 556). That too might be down to the moral kudos acquired by supporting Obama, says team member Cheryl Kaiser of the University of Washington in Seattle.

Huge obstacles

It could, of course, also be that Obama's success helps people to forget that a disproportionate number of black Americans still live in poverty and face huge obstacles when trying to overcome these circumstances. "Barack Obama's family is such a salient image, we generalise it and fail to see the larger picture - that there's injustice in every aspect of American life," Kaiser says. "For a lot of people, his tale reinforces the protestant work ethic," she adds. "But they fail to see that society might stop others from having their talent recognised." Those trying to address issues of racial inequality need to constantly remind people of the inequalities that still exist to counteract the Obama effect, she says.
Though Plant's findings were more positive, she too warns against thinking that racism and racial inequalities are no longer a problem. "It's not the time to be complacent - the last thing I want is for people to think everything's solved."

These findings do not only apply to Obama, or even just to race. They should hold for any role model in any country. "There's no reason we wouldn't have seen the same effect on our views of women if Hillary Clinton or Sarah Palin had been elected," says Effron. So the election of a female leader might have a downside for other women.

Beyond race

We also don't yet know how long the Obama effect - both its good side and its bad - will last. Political sentiment is notoriously fickle: what if things begin to go wrong for Obama, and his popularity slumps?
And what if Americans become so familiar with having Obama as their president that they stop considering his race altogether. "Over time he might become his own entity," says Plant. This might seem like the ultimate defeat for racism, but ignoring the race of certain select individuals - a phenomenon that psychologists call subtyping - also has an insidious side. "We think it happens to help people preserve their beliefs, so they can still hold on to the previous stereotypes." That could turn out to be the cruellest of all the twists to the Obama effect.

http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20227112.400-obamas-success-isnt-all-good-news-for-black-americans.html

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