Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

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"Language acquisition does not require
extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require
tedious drill." Stephen Krashenhttp://www.sk.com.br/Krashen.jpgKrashen's
"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding." Stephen Krashen
"The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready', recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production." Stephen Krashen
"In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful." Stephen Krashen
Introduction
Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of linguistics, specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Much of his recent research has involved the study of non-English and bilingual language acquisition. During the past 20 years, he has published well over 100 books and articles and has been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United States and Canada.
This is a brief description of Krashen's widely known and well accepted theory of second language acquisition, which has had a large impact in all areas of second language research and teaching since the 1980s.
Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition
Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:
- the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,
- the Monitor hypothesis,
- the Natural Order hypothesis,
- the Input hypothesis,
- and the Affective Filter hypothesis.
The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most
fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most
widely known among linguists and language practitioners.
According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal
instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in
conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of
grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning' is less
imp The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and he/she knows the rule. It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat
limited in second language performance. According to Krashen, the
role of the monitor is - or should be - minor, being used
on Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among
language learners with regard to 'monitor' use. He distinguishes
those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users);
those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their
conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the
'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of the
person's psychological pro |
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A hipótese acquisition-learning e a hipótese monitor representam a essência da teoria de Krashen. De acordo com sua teoria, acquisition é responsável pelo entendimento e pela capacidade de comunicação criativa: habilidades desenvolvidas subconscientemente. Isto ocorre através da familiarização com a característica fonética da língua, sua estruturação de frases, seu vocabulário, tudo decorrente de situações reais, bem como pela descoberta e assimilação de diferenças culturais e pela aceitação e adaptação à nova cultura. Learning depende de esforço intelectual e procura produzir conhecimento consciente a respeito da estrutura da língua e de suas irregularidades, e preconiza a memorização de vocabulário fora de situações reais. Este conhecimento atua na função de monitoramento da fala. Entretanto, o efeito deste monitoramento sobre a performance da pessoa, depende muito do perfil psicológico de cada um. Veja aqui mais sobre os conceitos de acquisition e learning. A hipótese monitor explica a relação entre acquisition e learning ao definir a influência deste último sobre o primeiro. Os esforços espontâneos e criativos de comunicação, decorrentes de nossa capacidade natural de assimilar línguas quando em contato com elas, são policiados e disciplinados pelo conhecimento consciente das regras gramaticais da língua e de suas exceções. Os efeitos deste monitoramento sobre pessoas com diferentes características de personalidade serão vários. Pessoas que tendem à introversão, à falta de autoconfiança, ou ao perfeccionismo, pouco se beneficiarão de um conhecimento da estrutura da língua e de suas irregularidades. Pelo contrário, no caso de línguas com alto grau de irregularidade (como o inglês), poderão desenvolver um bloqueio que compromete a espontaneidade devido à consciência da alta probabilidade de cometerem erros. Pessoas que tendem à extroversão, a falar muito, de forma espontânea e impensada, também pouco se beneficiarão de learning, uma vez que a função de monitoramento é quase inoperante, está submetida a uma personalidade intempestiva que se manifesta sem maior cautela. Os únicos que se beneficiam de learning, são as pessoas mais normais e equilibradas, que sabem aplicar a função de monitoramento de forma moderada. Mesmo assim, numa situação real de comunicação, o monitoramento só funcionará se ocorrerem 3 condições simultaneamente:- Tempo suficiente: que a
pessoa disponha de tempo suficiente para avaliar as alternativas
com base nas regras incidentes. |
The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however points out that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.
The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the
learner acquires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis
is Krashen's explanation of how second language acquisition takes
place. So, the Input hypothesis is on
Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.
O CONSTRUTIVISMO NO ENSINO DE LÍNGUAS A teoria de Krashen fornece substrato ao Natural Approach e ao Communicative Approach, versões norte-americana e britânica, respectivamente, do construtivismo no ensino de línguas. O construtivismo preconiza o desenvolvimento de habilidades e conhecimento como resultado de ação, de interação do ser inteligente com seu ambiente. Portanto, o ambiente é fator determinante. No caso de línguas estrangeiras, o ambiente apropriado é aquele que oferece convívio multicultural.
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The Role of Grammar in Krashen's View
According to Krashen, the study of the structure of the language can have general educational advantages and values that high schools and colleges may want to include in their language programs. It should be clear, however, that examining irregularity, formulating rules and teaching complex facts about the target language is not language teaching, but rather is "language appreciation" or linguistics. The on This is a subtle point. In effect, both teachers and students are deceiving themselves. They believe that it is the subject matter itself, the study of grammar, that is responsible for the students' progress, but in reality their progress is coming from the medium and not the message. Any subject matter that held their interest would do just as well. |
O PAPEL DA GRAMÁTICA SEGUNDO KRASHEN De acordo com Krashen, o estudo formal da estrutura de uma língua pode vir a oferecer certos benefícios, fazendo com que escolas secundárias bem como cursos de nível universitário (letras e lingüística) tenham interesse em incluir o estudo da gramática em seus programas de línguas estrangeiras. Deve ficar claro, entretanto, que a formulação de regras e o estudo das irregularidades e das complexidades da língua, não constituem-se em ensino e aprendizado que produzam proficiência comunicativa, mas apenas "apreciação" da língua, ou, simplesmente, lingüística. A única situação na qual o ensino da gramática pode resultar em assimilação e desenvolvimento da proficiência, ocorre se duas condições forem atendidas:
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REFERENCES
- Crystal, David
The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University Press, 1997. - Krashen, Stephen D.
Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Prentice-Hall International, 1987. - Krashen, Stephen D.
Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Prentice-Hall International, 1988.