选修8 Unit 1 A land of
diversity-Reading
CALIFORNIA
California is the third largest
state in the USA but has the largest population. It also has the
distinction of being the most multicultural state in the USA,
having attracted people from all over the world. The customs and
languages of the immigrants live on in their new home. This
diversity of culture is not surprising when you know the history of
California.
NATIVE AMERCANS
Exactly
when the first people arrived in what we now know as California, no
one really knows. However, it is likely that Native Americans were
living in California at least fifteen thousand years ago.
Scientists believe that these settlers crossed the Bering Strait in
the Arctic to America by means of a land bridge which existed in
prehistoric times. In the 16th century, after the arrival of the
Europeans, the native people suffered greatly. Thousands were
killed or forced into slavery. In addition, many died from the
diseases brought by the Europeans. However, some survived these
terrible times, and today there are more Native Americans living in
California than in any other state.
THE SPANISH
In
the 18th century California was ruled by Spain. Spanish soldiers
first arrived in South America in the early 16th century, when they
fought against the native people and took their land. Two centuries
later, the Spanish had settled in most parts of South America and
along the northwest coast of what we now call the United States. Of
the first Spanish to go to California, the majority were religious
men, whose ministry was to teach the Catholic religion to the
natives. In 1821, the people of Mexico gained their independence
from Spain. California then became part of Mexico. In 1846 the
United States declared war on Mexico, and after the war won by the
USA, Mexico had to give California to the USA. However, there is
still a strong Spanish influence in the state. That is why today
over 40 of Californians speak Spanish as a first or second
language.
RUSSIANS
In
the early 1800s, Russian hunters, who had originally gone to
Alaska, began settling in California. Today there are about 25,000
Russian-Americans living in and around San Francisco.
GOLD MINERS
In
1848, not long after the American-Mexican war, gold was discovered
in California. The dream of becoming rich quickly attracted people
from all over the world. The nearest, and therefore the first to
arrive, were South Americans and people from the United States.
Then adventurers from Europe and Asia soon followed. In fact, few
achieved their dream of becoming rich. Some died or returned home,
but most remained in California to make a life for themselves
despite great hardship. They settled in the new towns or on farms.
By the time California elected to become the thirty-first federal
state of the USA in 1850, it was already a multicultural
society.
LATER A RRIVALS
Although
Chinese immigrants began to arrive during the Gold Rush Period, it
was the building of the rail network from the west to the east
coast that brought even larger numbers to California in the 1860s.
Today, Chinese-Americans live in all parts of California, although
a large percentage have chosen to stay in the "Chinatowns" of Los
Angeles and San Francisco.
Other immigrants such as Italians, mainly fishermen but also wine
makers, arrived in California in the late 19th century. In 1911
immigrants from Denmark established a town of their own, which
today still keeps up their Danish culture. By the 1920s the film
industry was well established in Hollywood, California. The
industry boom attracted Europeans including many Jewish people.
Today California has the second largest Jewish population in the
United States.
Japanese
farmers began arriving in California at the beginning of the 20th
century, and since the 1980s a lot more have settled there. People
from Africa have been living in California since the 1800s, when
they moved north from Mexico. However, even more arrived between
1942 and 1945 to work in the ship and aircraft
industries.
MOST RECENT ARRIVALS
In
more recent decades, California has become home to more people from
Asia, including Koreans, Cambodians, Vietnamese and Laotians. Since
its beginning in the 1970s, the computer industry has attracted
Indians and Pakistanis to California.
THE FUTURE
People
from different parts of the world, attracted by the climate and the
lifestyle, still immigrate to California. It is believed that
before long the mix of nationalities will be so great that there
will be no distinct major racial or cultural groups, but simply a
mixture of many races and cultures.
GEORGE’S DIARY 12TH—14TH
JUNE
Monday 12th, June
Arrived
early this morning by bus. Went straight to hotel to drop my
luggage, shower and shave. Then went exploring. First thing was a
ride on a cable car. From top of the hill got a spectacular view of
San Francisco Bay and the city. Built in 1873, the cable car system
was invented by Andrew Hallidie, who wanted to find a better form
of transport than horse-drawn
trams. Apparently he'd been shocked when he
saw a terrible accident in which a tram's brakes failed, the
conductor could not control the situation and the tram slipped down
the hill dragging the horses with it.
Had
a late lunch at Fisherman's What. This is the district where
Italian fishermen first came to San Francisco in the late 19th
century and began the fishing industry. Now it's a tourist area
with lots of shops, sea food restaurants and bakeries. It's also
the place to catch the ferry to Angel Island and other places in
the Bay.
Did
so much exploring at Fisherman's What. Am exhausted and don't feel
like doing anything else. Early bed tonight!
Tuesday 13th, June
Teamed
up with a couple from my hotel (Peter and Terri) and hired a car.
Spent all day driving around the city. There's a fascinating drive
marked out for tourists. It has blue and white signs with seagulls
on them to show the way to go. It's a 79km round-trip that takes in
all the famous tourist spots. Stopped many times to admire the view
of the city from different angles and take photographs. Now have a
really good idea of what the city's like.
In
evening, went to Chinatown with Peter and Terri. Chinese immigrants
settled in this area in the 1850s. The fronts of the buildings are
decorated to look like old buildings in southern China. Saw some
interesting temples here, a number of markets and a great many
restaurants. Also art galleries and a museum containing documents,
photographs and all sorts of objects about the history of Chinese
immigration, but it is closed in the evening. Will go back during
the day. Had a delicious meal and then walked down the hill to our
hotel.
Wednesday 14th, June
In
morning, took ferry to Angel Island from the port in San Francisco
Bay. On the way had a good view of the Golden Gate Bridge. From
1882 to 1940 Angel Island was a famous immigration station where
many Chinese people applied for right to live in USA. The cells in
the station were very small, cold and damp; some did not even have
light but the immigrants had nowhere else to go. Their miserable
stay seemed to be punishment rather than justice and freedom to
them. They wrote poems on the walls about their loneliness and
mourned their former life in China. In 1940 the civil authorities
reformed the system so that many more Chinese people were able to
grasp the opportunity of settling in the USA. Made me very
thoughtful and thankful for my life today.
选修8 Unit 2 Cloning-Reading
CLONING:
WHERE IS IT LEADING US?
Cloning
has always been with us and is here to stay. It is a way of making
an exact copy of another animal or plant. It happens in plants when
gardeners take cuttings from growing plants to make new ones. It
also happens in animals when twins identical in sex and appearance
are produced from the same original egg. The fact is that these are
both examples of natural
clones.
Cloning
has two major uses. Firstly, gardeners use it all the time to
produce commercial quantities of plants. Secondly, it is valuable
for research on new plant species and for medical research on
animals. Cloning plants is straightforward while cloning animals is
very complicated. It is a difficult task to undertake. Many
attempts to clone mammals failed. But at last the determination and
patience of the scientists paid off in 1996 with a breakthrough -
the cloning of Dolly the sheep. The procedure works like
this:
On
the one hand, the whole scientific world followed the progress of
the first successful clone, Dolly the sheep. The fact that she
seemed to develop normally was very encouraging. Then came the
disturbing news that Dolly had become seriously ill. Cloning
scientists were cast down to find that Dolly's illnesses were more
appropriate to a much older animal. Altogether Dolly lived six and
a half years, half the length of the life of the original sheep.
Sadly the same arbitrary fate affected other species, such as
cloned mice. The questions that concerned all scientists were:
"Would this be a major difficulty for all cloned animals? Would it
happen forever? Could it be solved if corrections were made in
their research procedure?"
On
the other hand, Dolly's appearance raised a storm of objections and
had a great impact on the media and public imagination. It became
controversial. It suddenly opened everybody's eyes to the
possibility of using cloning to cure serious illnesses and even to
produce human beings.
Although
at present human egg cells and embryos needed for cloning research
are difficult to obtain, newspapers wrote of evil leaders hoping to
clone themselves to attain their ambitions. Religious leaders also
raised moral questions. Governments became nervous and more
conservative. Some began to reform their legal systems and forbade
research into human cloning, but other countries like China and the
UK, continued to accumulate evidence of the abundant medical aid
that cloning could provide. However, scientists still wonder
whether cloning will help or harm us and where it is leading
us.
克隆一直在我们左右并且已经被大多数人接受。它是一种用来准确复制其他动物或者植物的方法。在植物方面,克隆就发生在园丁从正在生长的植物上切去切口用来制造新的植株的时候。在动物方面也有克隆现象,比如说两个拥有同样性别以及外貌的同卵双胞胎。这两个事实都是自然界里的克隆例子。
克隆有2方面的主要用途。首先,园丁可以一直用它生产具有商业价值的植物。其次,它对于新的植物物种以及动物医药方面的研究极具价值性。植物克隆相对于动物克隆来说简单得多,而动物克隆则比较困难。
动物克隆是一项难以施行的任务。许多去克隆哺乳动物的尝试都以失败告终。但是在最后,科学家们凭借着决心和耐心终于在1996年取得了突破性的成功——成功地克隆出了多利羊。这项工作的步骤如下:
1.从母羊A体内取出卵细胞。
2.将细胞核从该卵细胞中移除。
3.该卵细胞为另一个新的细胞核准备。
4.从母羊B体内取出体细胞用于克隆。该体细胞内的细胞核包含了克隆一只新的羊所需的全部基因。
5.将该细胞核从体细胞中取出。
6.用电激的方法将从母羊B体内取出的细胞核与从母羊A体内取出的卵细胞融合。
7.重新融合的细胞在胚胎内分裂、生长。
8.将胚胎植入母羊C的体内,它将成为该克隆的携带者。
9.克隆出来的小羊羔体内细胞的基因来自于提供细胞核的母羊B。
THE
RETURN OF THE DINOSAURS?
The
possibility of cloning fierce and extinct wild animals has always
excited film makers. And they are not the only ones! The popularity
of films such as Jurassic Park, in which a scientist clones several
kinds of extinct dinosaurs, proves how the idea struck a mixture of
fear and excitement into people's hearts. But in fact we are a long
way from being able to clone extinct animals. Scientists are still
experimenting with cloning mammals. This is because the cloning of
mammals is still a new science and its story only began seriously
in the 1950s as this list
shows:
1950s
cloning of
frogs 1996
first clone of a mammal: Dolly the
sheep
1970s
research using the embryos of
mice 2000
cow gave birth to a
bison
1979
work on embryos of sheep and
mice 2001
China's first cloned twin
calves
1981
first experimental clones of
mice 2002
first cloned
cats
1983
first experimental clones of
cows 2005
first cloned
dog
…
From
time to time people suggest that extinct animals like dinosaurs,
can possibly be brought back to life through cloning.
Unfortunately, with what we know now, this is either impossible or
unsuitable. There are many reasons.
◎ The
initial requirement is that you need perfect DNA (which gives
information for how
cells
are
to grow).
◎ All efforts of cloning an
animal will be in vain if there is not enough diversity in the
group to overcome illnesses. Diversity in a group
means
having
animals with their genes arranged in different ways. The advantage
is that if there is a new illness some of these animals may
die,
but
others will survive and pass on the ability to resist that disease
to the next generation. The great drawback to cloning a group
of
animals
is that they would all have the same arrangement of genes and so
might die of the same illness. Then none of them would be left
to
continue
the species.
◎ It would be unfair to
clone any extinct animals if they were to live in a zoo. A
suitable habitat would be needed for them to lead a natural
life.
Based
on what we know now, you cannot clone animals that have been
extinct longer than 10,000 years. Actually, dinosaurs disappeared
65,000,000 years ago. So the chance of dinosaurs ever returning to
the earth is merely a dream.
选修8 Unit
3
Inventors and inventions-Reading
THE PROBLEM OF THE SHRIKES
When
I called up my mother in the countryside on the telephone she was
very upset. "There are some snakes in our courtyard," she told me.
"Snakes come near the house now and then, and they seem to have
made their home here, not far from the walnut tree. Can you get rid
of them please?" I felt very proud. Here was a chance for .me to
distinguish myself by inventing something merciful that would catch
snakes but not harm them. I knew my parents would not like me to
hurt these living
creatures!
The
first thing I did was to see if there were any products that might
help me, but there only seemed to be powders designed to kill
snakes. A new approach was clearly needed. I set about researching
the habits of snakes to find the easiest way to trap them. Luckily
these reptiles are small and that made the solution
easier.
Prepared
with some research findings, I decided on three possible
approaches: firstly, removing their habitat; secondly, attracting
them into a trap using male or female perfume or food; and thirdly
cooling them so that they would become sleepy and could be easily
caught. I decided to use the last one. I bought an ice-cream maker
which was made of stainless steel. Between the outside and the
inside walls of the bowl there is some jelly, which freezes when
cooled. I put the bowl into the fridge and waited for 24 hours. At
the same time I prepared some
ice-cubes.
The
next morning I got up early before the sun was hot. I placed the
frozen bowl over the snakes' habitat and the ice-cubes on top of
the bowl to keep it cool. Finally I covered the whole thing with a
large bucket. Then I waited. After two hours I removed the bucket
and the bowl. The snakes were less active but they were still too
fast for me. They abruptly disappeared into a convenient hole in
the wall. So I had to adjust my
plan.
For
the second attempt I froze the bowl and the ice-cubes again but
placed them over the snakes' habitat in the evening, as the
temperature was starting to cool. Then as before, I covered the
bowl with the bucket and left everything overnight. Early the next
morning I returned to see the result. This time with great caution
I bent down to examine the snakes and I found them very sleepy. But
once picked up, they tried to bite me. As they were poisonous
snakes, I clearly needed to improve my design
again.
My
third attempt repeated the second procedure. The next morning I
carried in my hand a small net used for catching fish. This was in
the expectation that the snakes would bite again. But monitored
carefully, the snakes proved to be no trouble and all went
according to plan. I collected the passive snakes and the next day
we merrily released them all back into the
wild.
Pressed
by my friends and relations, I decided to seize the opportunity to
get recognition for
my successful idea by
sending my invention to the patent office. Only after you have had
that
recognition can you say that you are truly
an inventor. The criteria are so strict that it is difficult to get
new ideas accepted unless they are truly novel. In addition, no
invention will get a patent if it
is:
◎a
discovery
◎a
scientific idea or mathematical
model
◎literature
or
art
◎a
game or a
business
◎a
computer
programme
◎a
new animal or plant
variety
Nor
will you receive a patent until a search has been made to find out
that your product really
is different from
everyone else's. There are a large number of patent examiners, too,
whose only job is to examine whether your claim is valid or not. If
it passes all the tests, your application for a patent will be
published 18 months from the date you apply. So I have filled in
the form and filed my patent application with the Patent Office.
Now it's a matter of waiting and hoping. You'll know if I succeed
by the size of my bank balance! Wish me luck!
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL
Alexander
Graham Bell was born in 1847 in Scotland, but when he was young his
family moved to Boston, USA. His mother was almost entirely deaf,
so Alexander became interested in helping deaf people communicate
and in deaf education. This interest led him to invent the
microphone. He found that by pressing his lips against his mother's
forehead, he could make his mother understand what he was
saying.
He
believed that one should always be curious and his most famous
saying
was:
"Leave
the beaten track occasionally and dive into the woods. Every time
you do you will be certain to find something that you have never
seen before. Follow it up, explore all around it, and before you
know it, you will have something worth thinking about to occupy
your mind. All really big discoveries are the result of
thought."
It was this
exploring around problems and his dynamic spirit that led to his
most famous invention - the telephone in 1876. Bell never set out
to invent the telephone and what he was trying to design was a
multiple telegraph. This original telegraph sent a message over
distances using Morse code (a series of dots tapped out along a
wire in a particular order). But only one message could go at a
time. Bell wanted to improve it so that it could send several
messages at the same time. He designed a machine that would
separate different sound waves and allow different conversations to
be held at the same time. But he found the problem difficult to
solve. One day as he was experimenting with one end of a straw
joined to a deaf man's ear drum and the other to a piece of smoked
glass, Bell noticed that when he spoke into the ear, the straw drew
sound waves on the glass. Suddenly he had a flash of inspiration.
If sound waves could be reproduced in a moving electrical current,
they could be sent along a wire. In searching to improve the
telegraph,
Bell had invented the first
telephone!
Bell
was fully aware of the importance of his invention and wrote to his
father:
"The
day is coming when telegraph wires will be laid on to houses just
like water or gas – and friends will talk to each other without
leaving
home."
The
patent was given in 1876, but it was not until five days later that
Bell sent his first telephone message to his assistant Watson. The
words have now become
famous:
"Mr
Watson - come here - I want to see
you."
Alexander
Graham Bell was not a man to rest and he interested himself in many
other areas of invention. He experimented with helicopter designs
and flying machines. While searching for a kite strong enough to
carry a man into the air, Bell experimented putting triangles
together and discovered the tetrahedron shape. Being very stable,
it has proved invaluable in the design of
bridges.
Bell
was an inventor all his life. He made his first invention at eleven
and his last at seventy- five. Although he is most often associated
with the invention of the telephone, he was indeed a continuing
searcher after practical solutions to improve the quality of
everybody's life.
选修8 Unit 4 Pygmalion-Reading
PYGMALION
MAIN CHARACTERS:
Eliza
Doolittle
(E): a
poor flower girl who is ambitious to improve
herself
Professor Higgins
(H): an expert in phonetics,
convinced that the quality of a person's English decides his/her
position in society
Colonel Pickering (CP): an
officer in the army and later a friend of Higgins' who sets him a
task
Act
One FATEFUL MEETINGS
11 :15 pm in
London, England in 1914 outside a theatre. It is pouring with rain
and cab whistles are blowing in all directions. A man is hiding
from the rain listening to people's language and watching their
reactions. While watching, he makes notes. Nearby a flower girl
wearing dark garments and a woollen scarf is also sheltering from
the rain. A gentleman (G) passes and hesitates for a
moment.
E: Come over’ere, cap’in, and buy me
flowers off a poor girl.
G: I'm sorry but I
haven't any change.
E: I can giv’ou change,
cap’in.
G: (surprised) For a pound? I'm afraid
I've got nothing
less.
E: (hopefully)
Oah! Oh, do buy a flower off me, Captain. Take
this for three pence. (holds up some dead
flowers)
G: (uncomfortably) Now don't be
troublesome, there's a good girl. (looks in his wallet and sounds
more friendly) But, wait, here's some small change. Will that be of
any use to you? It's raining heavily now, isn't it?
(leaves)
E: (disappointed at the outcome, but
thinking it is better than nothing) Thank you, sir. (sees a man
taking notes and feels worried) Hey! I ain’t done nothing wrong by
speaking to that gentleman. I've a right to sell flowers, I have. I
ain’t no thief. I'm an honest girl I am! (begins to
cry)
H: (kindly) There! There! Who's hurting
you, you silly girl? What do you take me for? (gives her a
handkerchief)
E: I thought maybe you was a
policeman in disguise.
H: Do I look like a
policeman?
E: (still worried) Then why did 'ou
take down my words for? How do I know whether 'ou took me down
right? 'ou just show me what 'ou've wrote about
me!
H: Here you are. (hands over the paper
covered in writing)
E: What's that? That ain't
proper writing. I can't read that. (pushes it back at
him)
H: I can. (reads imitating Eliza) "Come
over' ere, cap'in, and buy me flowers off a poor girl." (in his own
voice) There you are and you were
born
in
Lisson Grove if I'm not mistaken.
E: (looking
confused) What if I was? What's it to you?
CP:
(has been watching the girl and now speaks to Higgins) That's quite
brilliant! How did you do that, may I ask?
H:
Simply phonetics studied and classified from people's own speech.
That's my profession and also my
hobby. You can place a man by just a few remarks. I can place any
spoken conversation within six miles, and even within two streets
in London sometimes.
CP: Let me congratulate you! But is there an
income to be made in that?
H: Yes, indeed. Quite
a good one. This is the age of the newly rich. People begin their
working life in a poor neighbourhood of London with 80 pounds a
year and end in a rich one with
100 thousand. But they betray
themselves every time they open their mouths. Now once taught by
me, she'd become an upper class lady ...
CP: Is
that so? Extraordinary!
H: (rudely) Look at this
girl with her terrible English: the English that will condemn her
to the gutter to the end of her days. But, sir, (proudly) once
educated to speak properly, that
girl could pass herself off in three months as a duchess at an
ambassador's garden party. Perhaps I could even find her a place as
a lady's maid or a shop assistant, which requires better
English.
E: What's that you say? A shop
assistant? Now that's sommat I want, that is!
H:
(ignores her) Can you believe that?
CP: Of
course! I study many Indian dialects myself and
...
H: Do you indeed? Do you know Colonel
Pickering?
CP: Indeed I do, for that is me. Who
are you?
H: I'm Henry Higgins and I was going to
India to meet you.
CP: And I came to England to
make your acquaintance!
E: What about me? How'll
you help me?
H: Oh, take that. (carelessly
throws a handful of money into her basket) We must have a
celebration, my dear man. (leave together)
E:
(looking at the collected money in amazement) Well, I never. A
whole pound! A fortune! That'll help me, indeed it will. Tomorrow
I'll find you, Henry Higgins. Just you wait and see! All that talk
of (imitates him) "authentic English" ... (in her own voice) I'll
see whether you can get that for me ... (goes out)
Act Two, Scene
1 MAKING
THE BET
It
is 11am in Henry Higgins' house the next day. Henry Higgins and
Colonel Pickering are sitting deep in
conversation.
H: Do
you want to hear any more sounds?
CP: No, thank
you. I rather fancied myself because I can pronounce twenty-four
distinct vowel sounds; but your one hundred and thirty beat me. I
can't distinguish most of
them.
H: (laughing)
Well, that comes with
practice.
There
is a knock and Mrs Pearce (MP), the housekeeper, comes in with
cookies, a teapot, some cream and two cups.
MP:
(hesitating) A young girl is asking to see
you.
H: A
young girl! What does she want?
MP: Well, she's
quite a common kind of girl with dirty nails.I thought perhaps you
wanted her to talk into your
machines.
H: Why?
Has she got an interesting accent? We'll see.Show her in, Mrs
Pearce.
MP: (only half resigned to it) Very
well, sir. (goes
downstairs)
H: This
is a bit of luck. I'll show you how I make records on wax disks
...
MP: (returning) This is the young girl, sir.
(Eliza comes into the room shyly following Mrs Pearce. She is dirty
and wearing a shabby dress. She curtsies to the two
men.)
H: (disappointed)
Why! I've got this girl in my records. She's the one we saw the
other day. She's no use at all.
Take her away.
CP: (gently to Eliza) What do
you-want, young
lady?
E: (upset)
I wanna be a lady in a flower shop 'stead o' selling flowers in the
street. But they won't take me 'less I speak better. So here I am,
ready to pay him. I'm not asking for any favours - and he treats me
like dirt.
H: How much?
E:
(happier) Now yer talking. A lady friend of mine gets French
lessons for two shillings an hour from a real Frenchman. You
wouldn't have the face to ask me for the same for teaching me as
yer would for French. So I won't give yer more than a
shilling.
H: (ignoring Eliza and speaking to
Pickering) If you think of how much money this girl has - why, it's
the best offer I've had! (to Eliza) But if I teach you, I'll be
worse than a father.
CP: I say, Higgins. Do you
remember what you said last night? I'll say you're the greatest
teacher alive if you can pass her off as a lady. I'll be the
referee for this little bet and pay for the lessons too
...
E: (gratefully)
Oh, yer real good, yer are. Thank you,
Colonel.
H: Oh, she is so deliciously low.
(compromises) OK, I'll teach you. (to Mrs Pearce) But she'll need
to be cleaned first. Take her away, Mrs Pearce. Wash her and burn
her horrible clothes. We'll buy her new ones. What's your name,
girl?
E: I'm Eliza Doolittle and I'm clean. My
clothes went to the laundry when I washed last
week.
MP: Well, Mr Higgins has a bathtub of his
own and he has a bath every morning. If these two gentlemen teach
you, you'll have to do the same. They won't like the smell of you
otherwise.
E: (sobbing) I can't. I dursn't. It
ain't natural and it'd kill me. I've never had a bath in my life;
not over my whole body, neither
below my waist nor taking my vest off. I'd never have come if I'd
known about this disgusting thing you want me to do
...
H: Once more, take her away, Mrs Pearce,
immediately. (Outside Eliza is still weeping with Mrs Pearce) You
see the problem, Pickering. It'll be how to teach her grammar, not
just pronunciation. She's in need of both.
CP:
And there's another problem, Higgins. What are we going to do once
the experiment is
over?
H: (heartily)
Throw her back.
CP: But you cannot overlook
that! She'll be changed and she has feelings too. We must be
practical, mustn't
we?
H: Well,
we'll deal with that later. First, we must plan the best way to
teach her.
CP: How about beginning with the
alphabet. That's usually considered very effective ... (fades out
as they go offstage together)
选修8 Unit 5 Meeting your
ancestors-Reading
A VISIT TO THE ZHOUKOUDIAIN
CAVES
A group of students (S) from
England has come to the Zhoukoudian caves for a visit. An
archaeologist (A) is showing them
round.
A: Welcome
to the Zhoukoudian caves here in China. It is a great pleasure to
meet you students from England, who are interested in archaeology.
You must be aware that it's here that we found evidence of some of
the earliest people who lived in this part of the world. We've been
excavating here for many years and ...
S1: I'm
sorry to interrupt you but how could they live here? There are only
rocks and trees.
A: Good question. You are an
acute observer. We have found human and animal bones in those caves
higher up the hill as well as tools and other objects. So we think
it is reasonable to assume they lived in these caves, regardless of
the cold.
S2: How did they keep warm? They
couldn't have mats, blankets or quilts like we do. It must have
been very uncomfortable.
A: We've discovered
fireplaces in the centre of the caves where they made fires. That
would have kept them warm, cooked the food and scared wild beasts
away as well. We have been excavating layers of ash almost six
metres thick, which suggests that they might have kept the fire
burning all winter. We haven't found any doors but we think they
might have hung animal skins at the cave mouth to keep out the cold
during the freezing winter.
S3: What wild
animals were there all that time ago?
A: Well,
we've been finding the bones of tigers and bears in the caves, and
we think these were their most dangerous enemies. Now what do you
think this tells us about the life of these early people? (shows
picture of a sewing needle)
S2.: Gosh! That's a
needle. Goodness, does that mean they repaired
things?
A: What else do you think it might have
been used for?
S4: Let me look at it. It's at
most three centimetres long. Ah yes, it seems to be made of bone. I
wonder how they made the hole for the ...
S2:
(interrupting) Do you mean that they made their own clothes? Where
did they get the material?
A: They didn't have
material like we have today. Can you guess what they
used?
Sl: Wow! Did they wear clothes made
entirely of animal skins? How did they prepare them?
I'm sure they were quite heavy
to cut and sew together.
A: Our evidence
suggests that they did wear clothes made from animal skins. We
continue discovering tools that were sharpeners for other tools. It
seems that they used the sharpened stone tools to cut up animals
and remove their skin. Then smaller scrapers were probably used to
remove the fat and meat from the skin. After that they would rub an
ample amount of salt onto the skin to make it soft. Finally, they
would cut it and sew the pieces together. Quite a difficult and
messy task! Now look at this. (shows a
necklace)
S2:Why, it's a primitive necklace. Did
early people really care about their appearance like we do? It's
lovely!
A:Yes, and so well preserved. What do
you think it's made of?.
S4:Let me see. Oh, I
think some of the beads are made of animal bones but others are
made of shells.
A:How clever you are! One bone
is actually an animal tooth and the shells are from the seaside.
Can you identify any other bones?
S1:This one
looks very much like a fish bone. Is that
reasonable?
A:Yes, indeed, as the botanical
analyses have shown us, all the fields around here used to be part
of a large shallow lake. Probably there were fish in
it.
S3:But a lake is not the sea. We are miles
from the sea, so how did the seashells get
here?
A:Perhaps there was trade between early
peoples or they travelled to the seaside on their journeys. We know
that they moved around, following the herds of animals. They didn't
grow their own crops, but picked fruit when it ripened and hunted
animals. That's why they are called hunters and gatherers. Now, why
don't we go and visit the
caves?
THE FEAST: 18,000
BC
Worried
about the preparations for her feast, Lala quickly turned for home
with her collection of nuts, melons and other fruit. It was the
custom of family groups to separate and then gather again at
different sites for reunions as they followed the animal herds
across the grasslands. A wrinkle appeared on her forehead. If only
it could be just like last year! At that time she had been so happy
when Dahu chose her as the future mother of his children. He was
the best toolmaker in the group and it was a great honour for her
to be chosen. She remembered the blood pulsing through her veins.
She had felt so proud as the group shouted loudly to applaud his
choice. If only she had looked ahead and planned better this year!
Then she wouldn't have been feeling so worried
now.
Having
heard wolves howling in the forest, Lala accelerated her walk up
the path to the caves fearing that there might be wild beasts lying
in wait for her. She had no man with his spear to protect her. She
had almost reached her destination when a delicious smell arrested
her progress and she stopped. So the men had brought home the meat
for the feast! The smell of cooking meat filled the air surrounding
her, and her senses became dizzy with hunger. She could see her
mother and the older children preparing the deer and pig meat over
the fire. Her aunts were making clothes with animal skins. Abruptly
she sat down, only to be scooped up by her laughing, shouting
sister, Luna. Lala smiled with relief. It was good to have her
family around
her.
Just
then a tall man came up behind her. He had a large, square face,
with strongly pronounced eyebrows and cheekbones. Over his shoulder
he carried several fish and some pieces of wood under his arm. Lala
smiled and handed some stone scrapers over to Dahu, who smiled and
went outside the cave to begin his
task.
First
he looked carefully at the scrapers and then went to a corner of
the cave and pulled out some more tools. They were in a pile with
other sharp arrowheads and stone axe-heads. He chose one large
stone and began to use it like a hammer striking the edge of the
scraper that needed sharpening. Now and then Dahu would stop, look
at it and try it against his hand before continuing his task. He
stopped when he felt the scrapers were sharp enough to cut up the
meat and scrape the fish. As he passed them to Lala, the first of
the guests from the neighbouring caves began to arrive for dinner.
Lala's spirits rose. Yes, it was going to be just as wonderful as
last year! She smiled to herself gaily and went out of the cave to
welcome her friends and neighbours.
她担心准备盛宴,Lala迅速转过身来,用她的家、西瓜和坚果收集其他水果。这是家庭群体的习惯,然后又聚集到单独在不同的地点,由于他们要跟着兽群穿过草地。她的前额上出现了皱纹。如果只可能是和去年一样!当时她已经很开心,当Dahu选她为未来的母亲的孩子。他是最好的机床维修工、在集团是一个巨大的荣誉,她被选中。她记得她的血管里流人血的罪、脉冲通过。她感到非常的骄傲的高声地来赞赏他的选择。她要是展望,今年计划更好!然后她就不会觉得那么担心了。
听见狼咆哮在森林中,Lala加速其走上了通往洞穴担心会有野兽躺在等候她。她没有人用枪来保护自己。她几乎已经到达目的地时,她的进步和芳香的气味逮捕她停了下来。所以这个男人领回家过节的肉!肉的香味,周围的空气充满了她,她的感觉变得头晕与饥饿。她能看到她的母亲和年长的孩子准备鹿和猪肉在火上。她的姑妈是用兽皮做衣服。她突然坐下来,只能由她笑筛子,妹妹,露。Lala松了一口气,笑了。很高兴有她的家人。
就在这时,一个高个子男人走过来站在她身后。他有一个大的,方脸,具有强烈的明显的眉毛和颧骨。在他的肩膀,他抬几鱼和几块木头在他的胳膊。Lala笑了笑,然后递给我一些石头刮到Dahu,笑了笑,然后走出山洞开始他的任务。
首先,他仔细地看着这铲运机,然后去了一个角落的洞穴,拿出一些工具。他们在一桩与其他锐利的箭头和石头把斧头。他选了一个大块石头,开始就好像用锤子敲击边缘的需要磨机。现在,然后Dahu会停下来,看看它并试着它攻击他的手继续前他的任务。他停下来的时候,他觉得被刀刮刮切肉和鱼。当他通过他们Lala,客人们从邻近的洞穴开始到吃晚饭。Lala的情绪也高涨起来。是的,它将会是与去年一样精彩!她微笑地对自己曾经、从洞里出去迎接她的朋友们和邻居们。
选修9 Unit 1 Breaking
records-Reading
"THE ROAD IS ALWAYS AHEAD OF
YOU"
Ashrita Furman is a sportsman who likes the
challenge of breaking Guinness records. Over the last 25 years, he
hasbroken approximately 93 Guinness records. More than twenty of
these he still holds, including the record for having the most
records. But these records are not made in any conventional sport
like swimming or soccer. Rather Ashrita attempts to break records
in very imaginative events and in very interesting
places.
Recently, Ashrita achieved his dream of
breaking a record in all seven continents, including hula hooping
in Australia, pogo stick jumping under water in South America, and
performing deep knee bends in a hot air balloon in North
America.
While these activities might seem
childish and cause laughter rather than respect, in reality they
require an enormous amount of strength and fitness as well as
determination.
Think about the fine neck
adjustments needed to keep a full bottle of milk on your head while
you are walking. You can stop to rest or eat but the bottle has to
stay on your head.
While Ashrita makes standing
on top of a 75 cm Swiss ball look easy, it is not. It takes a lot
of concentration and a great sense of balance to stay on it. You
have to struggle to stay on top especially when your legs start
shaking.
And what about somersaulting along a
road for 12 miles? Somersaulting is a tough event as you have to
overcome dizziness, extreme tiredness and pain. You are permitted
to rest for only five minutes in every hour of rolling but you are
allowed to stop briefly to vomit.
Covering a
mile in the fastest time while doing gymnastically correct lunges
is yet another event in which Ashrita is outstanding. Lunges are
extremely hard on your legs. You start by standing and then you
step forward with the fight foot while touching the left knee to
the ground. Then you stand up again and step forward with the left
foot while touching the fight knee to the ground. Imagine doing
this for a mile!
Yet this talented sportsman is
not a natural athlete. As a child he was very unfit and was not at
all interested in sports. However, he was fascinated by the
Guinness Book of World Records.
How Ashrita came
to be a sportsman is an interesting story. As a teenager, he began
searching for a deeper meaning in life. He studied Eastern
religions and, aged 16, discovered an Indian meditation teacher
called Sri Chinmoy who lived in his neighbourhood in New York City.
Since that time in the early 1970s, Ashrita has been one of Sri
Chinmoy's students. Sri Chinmoy says that it is just as important
for people to develop their bodies as it is to develop their minds,
hearts and spiritual selves. He believes that there is no limit to
people's physical abilities.
When Ashrita came
third in a 24-hour bicycle marathon in New York's Central Park in
1978, he knew that he would one day get into the Guinness Book of
World Records. He had been urged by his spiritual leader to enter
the marathon even though he had done no training. So, when he won
third place, he came to the understanding that his body was just an
instrument of the spirit and that he seemed to be able to use his
spirit to accomplish anything. From then on, Ashrita refused to
accept any physical limitation.
With this new
confidence, Asharita broke his first Guinness record with 27,000
jumping jacks in 1979. The motivation to keep trying to break
records comes through his devotion to Sri Chinmoy. Every time
Ashrita tries to break a record, he reaches a point where he feels
he cannot physically do any more. At that moment, he goes deep
within himself and connects with his soul and his
teacher.
Ashrita always acknowledges his teacher
in his record-breaking attempts.In fact, he often wears a T-shirt
with Sri Chinmoy's words on the back. The words
are:
"There is only one perfect road. It is
ahead of you, always ahead of you."
FOCUS ON ...
Lance
Armstrong
Date of Birth: 8th September,
1971
Country: USA
Lance
Armstrong's Guinness record for the fastest average speed at the
Tour de France was set in 1999 with an average speed of 40.27
km/hr. In his teens he was a triathlete but at 16 he began to
concentrate on cycling. He was an amateur cyclist before the 1992
Olympic Games but turned professional after he had competed in the
Games. In the following few years, he won numerous titles, and by
1996 he had become the world's number one. However, in October
1996, he discovered he had cancer and
had to
leave cycling. Successfully fighting his illness, Armstrong
officially returned to racing in 1998. In 1999 he won the Tour de
France and in 2003 he achieved his goal of winning five Tours de
France.
Michellie
Jones
Date of Birth: 9th June,
1969
Country: Australia
In
1988 Michellie Jones helped establish the multi-sport event, the
triathlon, in Australia. After completing her teaching
qualifications in 1990, she concentrated on the triathlon. In 1991,
she finished third at the world championships. In 1992 and 1993,
she was the International Triathlon Union World Champion. Since
then, she has never finished lower than fourth in any of the world
championships she has competed in. At the Sydney Olympics in 2000
she won the silver medal in the Women's Triathlon, the first time
the event had been included in the Olympic Games. Recently, for the
first time in 15 years, Jones was not selected as part of the
national team and therefore did not compete in the 2004 Olympics in
Athens.
Fu
Mingxia
Date of Birth: 16th August,
1978
Country: China
Fu
Mingxia first stood on top of the 10-metre diving platform at the
age of nine. At 12 years old she won a Guinness Record when she
became the youngest female to win the women's world title for
platform diving at the World Championships in Australia in 1991. At
the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games, she took the gold medal in the
women's 10-metre platform, becoming the youngest Olympic diving
champion of all time. This was followed by great success at the
1996 Atlanta Olympic Games where she won gold for both the 10-metre
platform and the three-metre springboard. This made her the first
woman in Olympic diving history to win three gold medals. She
retired from diving after Atlanta and went to study economics at
university. While there she decided to make a comeback and went on
to compete at the Sydney Olympic Games, where she won her fourth
Olympic gold, again making Olympic history.
Martin
Strel
Date of Birth: 1st October,
1954
Country: Slovenia
Strel
was trained as a guitarist before he became a professional marathon
swimmer in 1978. He has a passion for swimming the world's great
rivers. In 2000, he was the first person ever to swim the entire
length of the Danube River in Europe - a distance of 3,004
kilometres in 58 days. For this, he attained his first entry in the
Guinness Book of World Records. Then in 2001 he broke the Guinness
record for non-stop swimming - 504.5 kilometres in the Danube River
in 84 hours and 10 minutes. Martin won his third entry in the
Guinness Book of World Records in 2002 when he beat his own record
for long distance swimming by swimming the length of the
Mississippi River in North America in 68 days, a total of 3,797
kilometres. Then in 2003 he became the first man to have swum the
whole 1,929 kilometres of the difficult Parana River in South
America.In 2004, Strel again broke his own Guinness record by
swimming the length of the dangerous Changjiang River (4,600 km),
the third longest fiver in the world.
选修9 Unit 2 Sailing the
oceans-Reading
SRILING THE
OCERNS
We may well wonder how seamen explored
the oceans before latitude and longitude made it possible to plot a
ship's position on a map. The voyages of travellers before the 17th
century show that they were not at the mercy of the sea even though
they did not have modern navigational aids. So how did they
navigate so well? Read these pages from an
encyclopedia.
Page 1:
Using
nature to help Keeping alongside the
coastline
This seems to have been the first and
most useful form of exploration which carried the minimum amount of
risk.
Using celestial
bodies
North Star
At the
North Pole the North Star is at its highest position in the sky,
but at the equator it is along the horizon. So accomplished
navigators were able to use it to plot their
positions.
Sun
On a clear day
especially during the summer the sailors could use the sun overhead
at midday to navigate by. They can use the height of the sun to
work out their
latitude.
Clouds
Sea captains
observed the clouds over islands. There is a special cloud
formation which indicates there is land close
by.
Using
wildlife
Seaweed
Sailors
often saw seaweed in the sea and could tell by the colour and smell
how long it had been them. If it was fresh and smelled
strongly,then the ship was close to
land.
Birds
Sea birds could
be used to show the way to land when it was nowhere to be seen. In
the evening nesting birds return to land and their nests. So seamen
could follow the birds to land even if they were offshore and in
the open sea.
Using the
weather
Fog
Fog gathers at
sea as well as over streams or rivers. Seamen used it to help
identify the position of a stream or river when they were close to
land.
Winds
Wise seamen used
the winds to direct their sailing. They could accelerate the speed,
but they could also be dangerous. So the Vikings would observe the
winds before and during their outward or return
journeys.
Using the
sea
Certain tides and currents could be used by
skillful sailors to carry ships to their destination.These skills
helped sailors explore the seas and discover new lands. They
increased their ability to navigate new seas when they used
instruments.
Page
2:
Using navigational instruments to
help
Finding longitude
There
was no secure method of measuring longitude until the 17th century
when the British solved this theoretical problem. Nobody
knew that the earth moved
westwards 15 degrees every hour, but sailors did know an
approximate method of calculating longitude using
speed and time. An early method
of measuring speed involved throwing a knotted rope tied to a log
over the side of the ship. The rope was tied to a log which was
then thrown into the sea. As the ship advanced through the water
the knots were counted as they passed through a seaman's hands. The
number of knots that were counted during a fixed period of time
gave the speed of the ship in nautical miles per hour.
Later, when seamen began to use the compass in
the 12th century they could calculate longitude using complicated
mathematical tables. The compass has a special magnetic pointer
which always indicates the North Pole, so it is used to help find
the direction that the ship needs to go. In this way the ship could
set a straight course even in the middle of the
ocean.
Finding
latitude
The Bearing
Circle
It was the first instrument to measure
the sun's position. A seaman would measure the sun's shadow and
compare it with the height of the sun at midday. Then he could tell
if he was sailing on his correct rather than a random
course.
A
Bearing Circle
The
Astrolabe
The astrolabe, quadrant and sextant
are all connected. They are developments of one another. The
earliest, the astrolabe, was a special all-in-one tool for telling
the position of the ship in relation to the sun and various stars
which covered the whole sky. This gave the seamen the local time
and allowed them to find their latitude at sea. However, it was
awkward to use as one of the points of reference was the moving
ship itself.
The
Quadrant
This was a more precise and simplified
version of the astrolabe. It measured how high stars were above the
horizon using a quarter circle rather than the full circle of the
astrolabe.It was easier to handle because it was more portable. Its
shortcoming was that it still used the moving ship as one of the
fixed points of reference. As the ship rose and plunged in the
waves, it was extremely difficult to be accurate with any
reading.
The
sextant
The sextant was the updated version of
the astrolabe and quadrant which reduced the tendency to make
mistakes. It proved to be the most accurate and reliable of these
early navigational instruments. It works by measuring the angle
between two fixed objects outside the ship using two mirrors. This
made the calculations more precise and easier to
do.
THE GREATEST NAVIGATIONAL JOURNEY:A LESSON IN
SURVIVAL
I
am proud to have sailed with Captain Bligh on his journey of over
40 days through about 4,000miles in an open boat across the Pacific
Ocean in 1789. Our outward voyage in the "Bounty" to Tahiti had
been filled with the kind of incidents that I thought would be my
stories when I returned home. But how wrong I was! On our departure
from Tahiti, some of the crew took over the ship.They deposited the
captain into a small boat to let him find his own way home. But who
else was to go with him? Those of us on board the "Bounty" were
caught in a dilemma. Was it better to risk certain death by sitting
close together on a small, crowded open boat with very little food
and water? Or should one stay on the "Bounty" with the crew and
face certain death from the British Navy if caught? The drawback of
staying on the ship seemed to grow as I thought about how wrong it
was to treat Captain Bligh in this way. So I joined him in the
small boat. As dusk fell, we seemed to face an uncertain future. We
had no charts and the only instruments the captain was allowed to
take with him were a compass and a
quadrant.
Once we were at sea,
our routine every day was the same. At sunrise and sunset the
captain measured our position using the quadrant and set the course
using the compass. It was extremely difficult for us to get a
correct reading from the quadrant as the boat moved constantly. The
captain used a system called "dead reckoning". He knew there was
land directly northwest of our original position. So his task was
to make sure we stayed on that course. As you can see from the map
we kept to a straight course pretty well. In addition, the captain
kept us all busy reading the tables to work out our position.
Although this took a great deal of time, it didn't matter. Time
was, after all, what we had a lot
of!
Our
daily food was shared equally among us all: one piece of bread and
one cup of water. It was starvation quantities but the extreme lack
of water was the hardest to cope with psychologically. Imagine all
that water around you, but none of it was safe to drink because the
salt in it would drive you mad! All the time the captain tried to
preserve our good spirits by telling stories and talking hopefully
about what we would do when we got back to England. We only half
believed
him.
The
tension in the boat got worse as the supply of food and water
gradually disappeared. We could foresee that we would die if we
could not reach land very soon and we sank gradually into a sleepy,
half-alive state. The captain was as weak as the rest of us, but he
was determined not to give up. He continued his navigational
measurements every day. He kept us busy and tried to take our minds
off our stomachs and our thirst. He kept us
alive.
You
could not imagine a more disturbing sight than what we looked like
when arriving in Timor over forty days after being set loose in our
small boat. Our clothes were torn, we had fever and our faces
showed the hardships we had suffered. But after a rest, some good
meals and some new clothes, everything changed. We couldn't stop
talking about our voyage and everybody wanted to hear about it. We
were the heroes who had escaped the jaws of death by completing the
greatest navigational feat of all time!
选修9 Unit 3 Australia-Reading
GLIMPSES OF
AUSTRALIA
AUSTRALIA
Capital:
Canberra Offcial
name: Commonwealth of
Australia
Area: 7,686,850
km2 Population:
20 million
Highest point:
Mount Kosciuszko, 2,228 metres above sea
level
Lowest point: Lake Eyre,
15 metres below sea level
Australia is the only
country that is also a continent. It is the sixth largest country
in the world and is in the smallest continent - Oceania. It is a
mainly dry country with only a few coastal areas that have adequate
rainfall to support a large population. Approximately 80 of
Australians live in the south-eastern coastal area, which includes
Australia's two largest cities – Melbourne and Sydney. The centre
of the continent, which is mainly desert and dry grassland, has few
settlements.
Australia
is famous for its huge, open spaces, bright sunshine, enormous
number of sheep and cattle and its unusual wildlife, which include
kangaroos and koalas. Australia is a popular destination with
tourists from all over the world who come to experience its unique
ecology.
Australia
is made up of six states. Like the states in America, Australian
states are autonomous in some areas of government. However,
Australia has a federal government responsible for matters that
affect people all over the country, such as defence, foreign policy
and taxation. The federal parliament is located in
Canberra.
CITIZENSHIP
CEREMONIES PLANNED AROUND
AUSTRALIA
On
26 January, Australia Day, in over 200 locations across the nation
, more than 9,000 people will become Australian
citizens.
"By
these citizenship ceremonies we welcome those who have come from
overseas from many different cultural and social backgrounds into
our communities and our nation," said the Minister for Citizenship
and Multicultural Affairs. "Australia Day celebrations that include
people from so many birthplaces are an excellent way to encourage
tolerance, respect and friendship among all the people of
Australia."
Most
citizenship ceremonies will be followed by displays of singing and
dancing from many of the migrants' homelands and the tasting of
food from all over the world.
Go by plane and
see clouds
Go by TRAIN and see Australia
Enjoy 3 nights on board the
Indian-Pacific
On this 4,352-km journey from
Sydney to Perth via Adelaide you'll view some ot Australias unique
scenery from the superb Blue Mountains to the treeless plains of
the Nuliarbor. Along the way you will spot a fascinating variety of
wildlife.
Enjoy 2 nights on board the
Ghan
As you travel from Adelaide to Darwin via
Alice Springs, you'll observe some of
Australia's
most spectacular landscapes - from
the rolling hills surrounding Adelaide to the rusty reds
of
Australia's centre and the tropical splendour
of Darwin.
For more information, timetables and
fares go towww.gsr.com.au/trains.htm
Dear Shen Ping,
I wish you could see this
amazing rock. It is part of one of Australia's 14 Worm Heritage
Sites and
rises about 335 metres out of a vast,
flat sandy plain. A t different times of the day it appears
to
change co/our, from grey-red at sunrise, to
golden and finally to burning red at dusk. Aboriginal people have
lived near Uluru for thousands of years and yout can walk around it
with an Aboriainal guide to learn about their customs, art,
religion and day-to-day life. It is also possible to climb the
rock, but most people don't do this out of respect for the
Aboriginal people who consider the rock to be sacred. I’ll be back
in Sydney in a fortnight because I've made a reservation on the
Indian Pacific train to Perth.
love Jack
Tours
outside Hobart
Drive 250 km northwestwards from
Hobart along the A10 highway and you'll arrive at the southern end
of the magnificent Cradle Mountain National Park and World Heritage
area. This park is famous for its mountain peaks, lakes and ancient
forests. A popular attraction for active tourists is the 80-km
walking track that joins the southern and northern ends of the
park. There are also a range of short walks.
Reading and discussing
Before you read the following text, read the
title and look at the pictures. Discuss with a partner what you
expect to read about in the
text.
AUSTRALIA’S
DANGEROUS
CREATURES
Australia
is home to more than 170 different kinds of snake and 115 of these
are poisonous. In fact, Australia has more kinds of venomous snake
than any other country in the world. Luckily, the poison of most
snakes can kill or paralyze only small creatures.A few varieties,
however, can kill humans, so it is just as well that snakes are
very shy and usually attack only if they are disturbed and feel
threatened.
There
are also approximately 2,000 different kinds of spider in Australia
and, like snakes, most have a poisonous bite. However, the majority
have no effect on humans or cause only mild sickness.Only a few
have venom that is powerful enough to kill a human being. While a
small number of Australians are bitten by spiders each year, most
recover without any medical treatment.
The
seas around Australia contain over 160 different kinds of shark,
which vary in size from just 20 centimetres to over 14 metres.
However, although they look dangerous because of their wide mouths
and sharp teeth, all but two or three kinds are harmless to
humans.
Another
potentially dangerous sea animal is the jellyfish. Most kinds of
poisonous jellyfish can cause severe pain to anyone who touches
them but the poison of the box jellyfish can actually kill a human,
especially if that person has a weak heart. The tiniest amount of
poison from a box jellyfish can kill in less than five minutes and
it is probably the most poisonous animal in the world.
There
is one other dangerous animal in Australia worth mentioning, and
that is the crocodile. Although two types of crocodile live in
Australia, only the saltwater crocodile has been known to kill
humans. This crocodile moves very quickly when it sees something it
considers to be food, and from time to time a crocodile has
snatched someone before he or she is even aware that the crocodile
is there.
You
might think that with all these dangerous animals Australia is an
unsafe place to live in or visit. However, this is far from the
truth. There are no more than a handful of shark attacks each year
and only three deaths have been reported in the last five
years.Similarly, in the last three years there have been only two
reported deaths from crocodile attacks. Since 1956, when an
anti-venom treatment for redback spider bites was developed, there
have been no deaths from redbacks, and since 1981 when a treatment
was developed for funnelweb spider poison, there have been no
deaths from this spider either. Treatments for jellyfish stings and
s~aakebites have also been developed and in the last five years
there have been only three deaths from jellyfish stings and about
the same number from snakebites.
选修9 Unit 4 Exploring
plants-Reading
PLANT EXPLORATION IN THE 18TH AND
19TH
CENTURIES
The
plants in our gardens look so familiar that often we do not realize
that many of them actually come from countries far away. Collecting
"exotic" plants, as they are called, dates back to the earliest
times. Many ancient civilisations saw the value of bringing back
plants from distant lands. The first plant collecting expedition
recorded in history was around 1500 BC when the Queen of Egypt sent
ships away to gather plants, animals and other
goods.
However,
it was not until the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that the
exploration of the botanical world began on a large scale. Europe
had become interested in scientific discovery and the European
middle classes took great interest in collecting new plants.
This
attraction to exotic plants grew as
European nations, like the Netherlands, Britain and Spain, moved
into other parts of the world like Asia and Australia. Brave young
men took the opportunity of going on botanical expeditions, often
facing many dangers including disease,near-starvation, severe
environments and conflicts with the local
people.
An
important group of collectors were Frencn Catholic missionaries
who, by the middle of the 18th century, were beginning to set
themselves up in China. One such missionary, Father d'Incarville,
was sent to Beijing in the 1740s. He collected seeds of trees and
bushes including those of the Tree of Heaven. Just before he died,
he sent some Tree of Heaven seeds to England. They arrived in 1751
and plants from these seeds were grown throughout Europe and later,
in 1784, the species was introduced in North
America.
Sir
Joseph Banks was a very famous British plant collector, who
accompanied James Cook on his first voyage from England to Oceania.
The purpose of the trip for Banks was to record the plant and
animal life they came across. He and his team collected examples
whenever they went onto dry land. In 1769, Banks collected vast
quantities of plants in the land now known as Australia. None of
these plants had been recorded by Europeans before. Cook called the
bay where the Endeavour had anchored Botany Bay.
Keeping
plants alive during long land or sea voyages was an enormous
challenge. Large numbers of seeds failed to grow after long sea
voyages or trips across land between Asia and Europe. One plant
explorer lost several years' work when his plants were mined with
seawater.
The
world of plant exploration was completely changed with Dr Nathaniel
Ward's invention of a tightly sealed portable glass container. This
invention, called the Wardian case, allowed plants to be
transported on long journeys. In 1833, Ward shipped two cases of
British plants to Sydney, Australia. All the plants survived the
six-month journey. In 1835, the cases made a return trip with some
Australian species that had never been successfully transported
before. After eight months at sea, they arrived safely in
London.
A
British man called Robert Fortune was one of the earliest plant
collectors to use Wardian cases. He made several trips to China
between 1843 and 1859. At that time, there were restrictions on the
movement of Europeans and so, in order to travel unnoticed, he
developed his fluency in Chinese and dressed as a Chinese man, even
shaving his head in the Chinese style. He experienced many
adventures including huge thunderstorms in the Yellow Sea and
pirates on the Yangtze River. Not only did Fortune introduce over
120 species of plants to Western gardens but he also shipped 20,000
tea plants from Shanghai to India, where a successful tea industry
was
established.
The
second half of the nineteenth century was a very important period
of plant exploration. During this time many Catholic missionaries
were sent to China from France. They valued the study of the
natural sciences and many of the missionaries knew a lot about
plants and animals. Their expeditions resulted in huge plant
collections, which were sent back to France. One of the collectors
was Father Farges, who collected 37 seeds from a tree that had
appealed to him. This tree was later called the Dove Tree. He sent
the seeds back to France in
1897 but only one
seed grew.
Although
the missionaries collected large numbers of soecimens. there was
not enough material for growing particular species in Western
gardens. However, European botanists were very excited with the
knowledge that China had a vast variety of plants, so many plant
collectors were sent on collecting trips to China. One of these
collectors was E H Wilson who, in 1899, was able to collect a large
quantity of seeds of the Dove Tree that Father Farges had
discovered. Wilson and other plant collectors introduced many new
plants to Western gardens.
Reading and discussing
Before you read the text on page 38, have a
quick glance at it. What is the text about? What do the pictures
show you? What is the chart
about?
FLOWERS
AND THEIR ANIMAIL
POLLINATORS
Over
time, many flowering plants and their animal pollinators have
evolved together. The plant needs the animal to pollinate it and
the animal is rewarded with food called nectar when it visits the
flowers. Pollen becomes attached to the animal during its visit to
a flower and is then passed on to another plant's blossom on its
next visit. So pollination takes place, therefore increasing the
chances of the survival of the plant
species.
Through
evolution, most flowers have adapted to attract specific types of
pollinators. Bees, moths and butterflies are the most
important
pollinators. Flies, wasps, beetles and
other animals such as birds and bats are less
common.
The
type of pollinator depends on the characteristics of the flower
such as its colour, shape, size and smell. For example, yellow
flowers attract bees, while red flowers attract butterflies. The
nectar in some flowers can only be reached by a bird with a long
bill or a long-tongued moth or butterfly. The chart below describes
some features of flowers that attract certain kinds of
pollinators.
Pollinator
Typical flower characteristics
Bees Colour:
bright yellow, blue; the flower often has a special pattern to
guide the bees to the nectar inside.
Shape: the
petals are wide enough for bees to land on;usually the nectar is at
the end of a small, narrow tube whose length is the same as the
tongue of a particular species.
Smell: delicate,
fragrant.
Butterflies Colour: red,
orange.
Shape: the petals form a tube of a
suitable length for butterflies. Tiny flowers are often in tight
bunches that provide a place for butterflies to land on, eg
daisies.
Smell:
odourless.
Moths Colour: white, light-coloured
so moths can see them at night.
Shape: the
petals form a deep tube to match the length of a specific moth's
tongue. The petals lie fiat or bend back so the moth can get close
to the flower.
Smell: strong, sweet perfume,
typically only given out
at
night.
Flies Colour: dull-coloured, brownish
red.
Smell: strong like rotting
meat.
Humming-birds Colour: brightly coloured,
especially red and orange.
Shape: tube-shaped;
petals bent back so birds can get close.
Smell:
no odour.
Bats Colour: white, light-coloured so
bats can see them at night.
Shape: open at
night; large, strong with wide mouths for long
tongues.
Smell: musty, fruity smell.
选修9 Unit 5 Inside
advertising-Reading
HOW ADVERTISINC
WORKS
Do you know how many advertisements you
are exposed to in your daily life? Every day, we pass by
advertisements on buses and billboards, on trains and in train
stations, in shop windows, outside restaurants and on public notice
boards. At home, we see advertisements in magazines and newspapers
and in the middle of our favourite television programmes. We hear
advertisements on the radio and come across them on the Internet.
Even some of the casual garments we wear have brand names attached
to them which turn us into walking advertisements. With so many
messages from advertisers filling our daily lives, it is important
to understand how advertisements work. Then we can avoid being
controlled by them.
What is an
advertisement?
An advertisement is a message or
announcement that informs or influences people. It can use words,
pictures, music or film to communicate its message. Adverts are not
only made and paid for by business, but also by individuals,
organizations and associations that wish to inform or educate the
public.
How do advertisers make effective
advertisements?
Identify your
target
Advertisers must pay the media for
displaying their ads. Their money would be wasted if the message
didn't reach its target audience, in other words the people the
advertisement intends to persuade. For example, adolescent boys are
more likely to buy computer games than any other group, so it makes
sense to make computer game ads that appeal to this group. Having
identified the target group, researchers find out as much as
possible about those in the target group, such as their likes and
dislikes, and how the product would fit into their lives. This
information then forms the basis for decisions about what type of
advertising techniques to use with this group.
Appeal to your target
In
order to persuade people to do something, advertisements often
appeal to our hopes and dreams or our emotions. For example, the
one on the right, which advertises sports shoes, shows young people
doing exciting things. The colours and the flames also suggest
excitement. The message it is sending is: "Buy our shoes and you'll
live an exciting life in the 'fast lane'." The ad above, with the
star in it, is for a new radio station. It appeals to people's
desire to "fit in" and be part of the group. The message is:
"Everyone else is listening and if you want to be part of the
group, you'd better listen too."
Some
advertisements appeal to people's desire to save money. Others are
more likely to be noticed if they are funny. Ads that feature rich
and famous people will grab the attention of those who admire
people like that. Some adverts, like the environmental protection
advertisement below, appeal to our conscience or our desire to be
worthy citizens.
Use a suitable
medium
As
well as reaching the fight audience with the fight technique,
advertisers must also place their ads in the right medium.
Obviously, cost will play a.big part in this decision. Television
adverts are expensive to make and to show. You have to be a big
corporation with a big budget to afford television ads.
Advertisements in newspapers, on the other hand, are much
cheaper.
As well as worrying about the expense,
advertisers must also consider which media are most appropriate for
their product and which their target audience is most likely to see
or hear. Because most cars have radios, ads broadcast via radio can
reach a lot of drivers very easily. For this reason, it would be
appropriate to use radio to advertise goods and services relating
to cars. However, it would be no use advertising products on radio
if the ad relies on visual effects. Television adverts are great
for generating emotional responses to a product, but magazines and
newspapers can give more detail.
How effective are
advertisements?
However
good an advertisement is, people are unlikely to be persuaded if
the product is unsuitable for them. For example, no matter how good
an ad for a car stereo system is, people who don't own cars are
unlikely to run out and buy one. Look at the advertisements in this
unit. How many of the goods or services suit your interests or
lifestyle? Would really good advertising persuade you to buy
products and services you are not interested in or have no use
for?
On
the other hand, being constantly exposed to advertisements can help
to change our opinions over time. This is why governments all over
the world pay a lot of money for ads on such things as road safety.
They believe these adverts will affect the way people think about
their driving habits and will subsequently reduce the number of
road accidents.
KEEPING ADVERTISEDRS
HONEST
Organizations and individuals advertise because
they want to persuade people to behave in certain ways, for example
to buy a certain brand of rice, stop speeding or see a movie at
their cinema. Advertisers go, to a lot of trouble and expense to
make adverts and so they want to make sure they achieve their
purpose. Unfortunately, not all advertisers are good or honest
people. Unless we have ways to protect ourselves, these dishonest
advertisers will tell lies or use methods that may mislead us.
Fortunately, most countries have developed ways to control
advertising and prevent false or unsuitable
advertising.
The
law
One way to control advertising is to make
laws that prevent advertisers doing the wrong thing. Many countries
have laws that forbid ads being shown at inappropriate times or in
unsuitable places. For example, an ad that has an adult theme
cannot be shown during children's television programmes. In some
countries advertising alcoholic drinks or tobacco is banned
altogether. There are also laws in most places that prevent
advertisers making false statements about their products or from
promoting immoral or harmful behaviour.
Advertising
organizations
Most advertisers
are decent and honest, and they
are as interested as everyone else
in making sure ads are ethical.
For this reason,
most
advertisers belong to
advertising organizations that
not only educate and support
their members, but also make
rules for everyone in the
organization to follow. They are
called a code of ethics and include such rules as:
Advertisements must not
be untruthful or misleading;
Advertisements must not say bad things about
other people's products. If
well-known people are used in advertisements, they must be honest
and truthful about products they
advertise.
Complaints
organization
Even though there are laws and
advertisers' codes of conduct, some bad ads do get made. This is
why many countries have a government organization which examines
complaints about ads. A consumer can complain to the organization,
giving reasons for their complaint, and if the complaint is
correct, the organization can make the company stop using the
offending
advertisement.
The
consumer
You may have heard the saying: "Buyer
Beware". This means that the consumer is responsible for checking
the product before buying. When it comes to advertising, consumers
need to be educated about techniques used by advertisers so they
can judge the claims for themselves and not blindly accept
everything that is said in advertisements. As we are flooded with
advertisements in our modem world, many schools believe it is their
duty to educate students about advertising.
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