·                                       Chapter 1: Introduction

1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.

2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole.

3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.

4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say).

5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C)

6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04)

7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C)

8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.

9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.

10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）

linguistic competence:universally found in the grammars of all human languages,syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. competence有什么区别？？

11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.

12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.

14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C)

15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users.

16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.

17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)

18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).

19.Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.

20.Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.

21.communicative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.

 

·                                       Chapter 2: Phonology

1. phonic medium : The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds within this range are speech sounds)

2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world’s languages. (06C)

3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)

4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.

5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the speaker issues.

或者It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transimitted through the air from one person to another)

6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.

7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.

8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.

9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.

10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.

11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.

12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.

13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.

14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.

15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.

16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.

17. monophthong : the individual vowel.

18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels and are produced by moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)

19. phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.

20. phoneme : An abstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it’s represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)

或者The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.

21. allophone : the different phones which can represent the same phoneme in different phonetic enviroments are called allophones of that phoneme (07C/ 05)

22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds form patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)

23. phonemic contrast : two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.

24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.

25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except for

one sound segment which occurs in the same position.

26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.

27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.

28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.

29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)

30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.

31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they’re collectively known as intonation.

32. nucleus: It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.

32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the initial consonant together constitute a minimal set.

·                                       Chapter 3: Morphology

1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.

2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it constantly.(08C)

3. closed class: A group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members,including conjunctions ,prepositions ,pronouns.etc.

4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.

5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.

6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.

7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.

8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.

9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.（07F）

10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word.

11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.(but never change their syntactic category).(08F)

12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.

13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single words

14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification to indicate such grammatical categories as numuber,tense or pluarity. (04)

15.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.

·                                       Chapter 4: Syntax

1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.

2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.

3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.

4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.

5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.

6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.

7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories.(In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are NP, VP, PP, AP.)

8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.

9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads and attached to the top level

are said to function as specifiers.

10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.

11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.

12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.

13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.

14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction (such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.)

15. subcategorization: The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization. (07C)

16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.(08F/09C)

17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.

18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.

19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.

20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.

21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.

22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.

23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.

24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads’s subcategorization properties.(08F)

25. surface structure : Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which result from appropriate transformations. (05)

26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question.

27. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.

28. move α: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.

                               补充

29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.第十一章

30.structural analysis: to investigate the distinction of forms eg.morphemes

in a language.

31.IC analysis: how small components in sentences go together to form larger constituents.

32.paradigmatic relation: the substitutional relation between a set of linguistic items,that is,linguistic forms can be substitued for each other in the same positon.

33.syntagmatic relation: the relation between any linguisticelements which are simultaneously present in a structure.

34.immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）is the technique of breaking up sentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings until the level of single words is reached.

35.endocentric construction: (向心结构或内心结构) One construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching  equivalence, to one of its constituents. The typical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and adjective phrases. （03）

36.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构) the opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.

 

 

·                                       Chapter 5: Semantics

1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.

2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning of a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world, but through the mediation of concept of the mind.

3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.

4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.(08C)

7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.

8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.

9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.(it can be understood as the growth and development of or change in the meaning of the words).(05/03)

10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (04)

11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.

12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.

13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.

14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.

15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate;and the more specific words are called its hyponyms;hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.

16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.

17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.

18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.( e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.)

19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.

20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.

21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.(07F)

或者 Entailment is a relation of inclusion.If X entails Y,then the meaning of X is included in Y.

22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate。

e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more tea.

23. componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult].

24. predication analysis: a way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to analyze sentence meaning.(08C)

25. predication: In the framework of predication analysis, the basic units is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.

26. predicate: A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.

27. argument: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.

28. selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.

29. semantic features: The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult]. (04)

30. presequence: The specific turn that has the function of prefiguring the coming action. (05)

·                                       Chapter 6: Pragmatics

1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.

2. context: It is generally considered as constitued by the knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers. (05)

3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features in isolation from context.

4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a certain context with a certain purpose. (03、08C)

5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.

6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle, which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking. (05)

7. constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. (06F/07C)

8. performatives: Performatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.(07F)

9. locutionary act: The act of uttering words,phrases,clauses and conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology.

10. illocutionary act: The act of expressing the speaker’s intention and performed in saying something. (06F)

11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or the change brought about by the utterance.

12. representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.

13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.

14. commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.

15. expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.

16. declaration/declaratives:Bring about immediate changes by saying something.(07F)

17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.

18. conversational implicature:The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.

19. formality: formality refers to the degree of how formal the words are used to express the same purpose. Martin Joos proposed five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, cold, and frozen. (06F)