LEXICAL GROWTH AND CHANGE

   The ever-increasing size of the English vocabulary results from a variety of processes, mainly of two kinds: (1) processes of growth, through which words enter the language, and (2) processes of change, whereby words already in use undergo alterations in meaning.

词法的增长与变化

    英语词汇不断增长的规模是由各种过程造成的，主要是两种：（1）增长过程，通过它词汇进入语言，（2）变化过程，借此，已经在使用词汇发生了意思的改变。

   Methods of Forming Words.  Although there are many word of unknown origin, there are almost no “originals”—words created without a source of some kind. The following represent the chief sources of the English vocabulary:

    构词方法。尽管存在许多不明来源的词，但几乎没有什么“原生词”---是没有某种来源被创造出来的。以下描述了英语词汇的主要来源：

   Borrowing from Other Languages.  The English language has vast debts. In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed. The majority are likely to come from Latin, and of those more than half will come through French. A considerable number will derive directly or indirectly from Greek. A substantial contribution will come from Scandinavian languages, and a small percentage from Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, and Dutch. Scattered words will be from various sources around the globe. The vocabulary has grown from the 50,000 to 60,000 words in Old English to the tremendous number of entries—650,000 to 750,000---in an unabridged dictionary of today. The bulk of the word spoken and written by English-speaking people, however, are native words, the nine most frequently used being and, be,have, it, of, the, to, will, and you. Borrowed words are nevertheless immensely useful in enriching the vocabulary and making the language flexible and resourceful.

    从其它语言中借用的词。英语语言拥有巨大的债务。在任何词典中，大约有80%的词目是借用的。大多数可能来自拉丁语，而这些词的一半以上是经法语传播的。相当多的数目大概直接或间接地来自希腊语。斯堪的那维亚的语言可能也有大量的贡献，还有一小部分来自葡萄牙语、意大利语、西班牙语和荷兰语。零散的词汇可能来全球的各种来源。在古英语中的词汇量从5万至6万个词汇已增长到在今天的一部未删节词典中的65万至75万个大量条目。然而，说英语人们口头和书写的大量单词都是本土词汇。最常用的九个单词是and(和)， be（是），have（有），it（它），of（…的）the（这，那）to（至） will（将要）以及you（你，你们）。尽管如此，借用词汇在丰富词汇和语言灵活机智方面是极其有益的。

   Compounding.  The most evident method of forming new words is joining two or more words to make a new entry. It has been common in all period of English. Some of the shortest and simplest-appearing words were formed originally in this way—for example, hussy, from Old English hus and wif (“housewife”). Almost all parts of speech lend themselves to compounding, though some combinations are far more useful than others.

    合成词。形成新词最明显的方法是连接两个或更多的词汇形成一个新词目。这在英语的所有时期都很常见。一些最短和最简单的词最初都是以这种方式形成的---例如，hussy（贱妇），来自古英语hus 和wif（“家庭主妇”）。几乎所有的词性都适合成词，尽管某些组合比其它组合更有用。

   Examples of nouns formed by compounding are houseboat or motorway (from two nouns), blackberry or greenhouse (from adjective and noun), popcorn (from verb and noun), touchdown (from verb and adverb), and downpour or output (from adverb and verb). Adjective so formed include footsore (from noun and adjective) and overdue (from adverb and adjective). There are also connective and particle compounds, such as notwithstanding and insofar, and phrase oddities, such as up-and-coming.

    由合成词形成名词的例子有houseboat（居住船） 或motorway（快车道）（来自两个名词），blackberry（黑梅） 或greenhouse（温室）（来自形容词和名词），popcorn（爆米花）（来自动词和名词），touchdown（着陆）（来自动词和副词），而downpour（倾盆大雨） 或output（产量）（来自副词和动词）。这样形成的形容词包括footsore（脚痛的）（来自名词和形容词）以及overdue（未付的）（来自副词和形容词）。还有连接词和虚词的合成，比如notwithstanding（尽管如此） 和insofar（到这个程度），以及短语怪词，如up-and-coming（积极进取的）。

   Formation by Affixes.  Another common process of word making is that of adding a prefix or suffix to a single word. Some affixes have existed from the Old English period, such a un-, -ness, -less, and –ish, in words like undo, frankness, useless, and childish. Examples of living prefixes—those that can be applied freely to new words –are anti-, ex-, pro- super-, hyper-, post-, and many more. A similar morphological wealth is seen in the suffixes. Consider, for example, Latin –ation and –ative; French –al, -able, -ous, and –ary (all ultimately Latin); and Greek –ist, -ize, and –it is. The number of word formed by affixes is constantly growing.

    由词缀形成的词。另一个常见的造词过程是给一个单词增加一个前缀或后缀。古英语时期一些词缀就已经存在，如un-，-ness，-less，和–ish，在一些词汇中，如undo（解开），frankness（率直），useless（无用的）和childish（孩子气的）。仍在使用的前缀例子---那些能够自由地应用于新词汇的前缀是anti-（反对）, ex-（前…），pro-（剧前），super-（超级的），hyper-（在…之上）post-（在…之后），以及更多的例子。在后缀中可见到类似的大量形态。例如，拉丁语的–ation和–ative；法语的–al，-able，-ous，and –ary（最终都是拉丁语）；以及希腊语的–ist，-ize，和 –itis。通过词缀形成的单词数量一直在不断增长。

   Functional Shift.  The free interchange of functions, whereby one part of speech is changed to another, is a significant feature of Modern English. Functional shift between noun and verb is common; for example, one may sew a button on a coat and then button the coat. But many other changes are possible. A noun may become an adjective, as in “home run,” or an adverb, in “go home.” An adjective may become a noun, in “none but the brave,” or a verb, in “brave the storm.” A preposition may become an adjective, as in “a through train”; and an adverb may become an adjective, as in “the then minister.”

    功能的转换。功能的自由互换，借此一种词性变成另一种词性，是现代英语的显著特征。在名词和动词之间的功能转换是很常见的；例如，人们可以在一件大衣上缝上一个钮扣（button），然后扣上大衣的扣子（button）。但许多其它的变化也是可能的。一个名词可以变成形容词，比如“全垒打（home run）”，或一个副词，比如“回家（go home）。一个形容词可以变成名词，比如“只有勇敢的人（none but the brave），或一个动词，比如“顶风冒雨（brave the storm）”。一个介词可以变成一个形容词，比如“一列直达快车（a through train）；以及一个副词可以变成一个形容词，比如“当时的部长（the then minister）。

   Figures of Speech.  In the creation of words, imagery plays a great role, as in the original combination the day’s eye, which finally became daisy, now a fossilized image. Metaphors of this type are common in the English vocabulary, as can be seen from names of other flowers, such as bleeding heart and lady’s slipper (or lady slipper). Likewise, imagery is evident in numskull (also spelled numbskull) or pip-squeak and in the various uses of the word head, originally naming a part of the body. Now, because of the resemblance in shape, we speak of a “head of cabbage,” or in considering function, of the “head of a government.” Metaphor also is used in the “head of a pin,” but in “fifty head (of cattle),” synecdoche—the naming of part to indicate the whole—is employed.

修辞手法。在创造词汇的过程中，形象化起到了重大作用，就像白昼之眼最初的组合那样，它最终变成了雏菊，现在变成了僵化的形象。这类比喻在英语词汇中是很常见的，正如在其它花的名称中能够看到的那样，比如荷包牡丹和凤仙花。同样，形象化在傻瓜（也可拼写成numbskull）或无中轻重的人（pip-squeak）中很明显，而在头脑（head）这个词的各种用法中，起初是给身体的一部分命名。现在，因为形状相似，我们说“卷心菜头”，或考虑到功能，我们说“政府首脑”。比喻也用于“针头”，但在“五十头（牛）”中，使用提喻法---命名部分来表示整体。

   Poetic imagery is evident in slang, where one finds a definite contrast between the literal and the figurative meanings of the word. Slang is generally bold and metaphoric presentation of an idea, originating from the attempt to be novel and fresh. For example, the literal meaning of pull is transformed into the metaphorical meaning “influence.” In slang there is no lack of creative and vivid EXPRESION. The difficulty is that it is overused, and as a result it often drops out of use after a fever is circulation. Nevertheless, it is an important method of rejuvenating the language, for many slang creations remain.

俚语中的诗歌意象是很明显的，在其中人们会发现在词的字面上的和比喻意义之间的清晰对比。俚语通常是对一种想法大胆而隐喻的表达，源于对新颖和独创的尝试。例如，将挣脱字面上的意义转入隐喻意义“影响”。在俚语中，不乏创造性和生动的表达。难题是它被过度地使用，结果是它常常在高度兴奋的循环之后，失去了词义。然而，它是复兴语言的一种重要方法，因为许多俚语的创造依然存在。

   Clipping and Back-Formation.  Two methods of word creation, which result in shortening, may be considered together—clipping and back-formation. Clippings occur frequently in informal situations, especially in spoken language. Student speech is filled with examples like exam, lab, math, and gym. Such abbreviations may become so well established that they supersede the original. An example is the word mob, the use of which was opposed by Jonathan Swift in the 18^th century. He preferred the Latin mobile vulgus (“vacillating crowed”). Today no one thinks of using the longer form. Other common clipped words are cab (from cabriolet) and phone (from telephone).

缩短与逆构词。 可以一并考虑导致缩短造词的两种方法---缩短与逆构法。缩短经常出现在非正式的状况中，尤其是在口头语言中。学生的言谈中充满了像考试、实验室、数学和体育馆这样的例子。这样的缩写词可以变得如此成熟，以至于他们替代了源型词。一个例子是乌合之众这个词，在18世纪，乔纳森·斯威夫特反对使用它。他更喜爱拉丁语mobile vulgus（“摇摆不定的人群”）。今天，没人会考虑使用那个更长的形式）。其它的常见缩短词是出租车（来自蓬式汽车）和电话（来自电话）。

   Many back-formations in English come from words ending in –s that were singular but were mistaken for plurals or from words having what appear to be (but are not) suffixes, especially the –er, -ar, or –or of agent. Examples of the former are sherry (from the earlier sherris, taken as a plural) and pea (from pease). Instances of the latter include rove (from rover), beg (from beggar), and edit (from editor).

    英语中的许多逆构词来自以单数–s结尾的词汇，但被误认为是复数或者来自看起来有后缀（但不是）的那些词汇，尤其是行为者的–er，-ar，或 –or。前者的例子是雪莉酒（sherry）（来自早期的葡萄酒sherris，用于复数形式）和豌豆pea（来自豌豆pease）。后者的例子包括流浪rove（来自流浪者rover），乞求beg（来自乞丐beggar），以及编辑edit（来自编辑editor）。

   “Initial” Words, or Acronyms. Combining the initial letters of a series of words to form a new word is another method of shortening. NATO, for example, is an acronym for “North Atlantic Treaty Organization.” Not only may initial letter be used, but initial syllables or parts of words may be combined, as in EUROMART (“European common Market”) and radar for “radio detecting and ranging.” Acronyms have become increasingly popular. In many cases one uses words like laser and maser or SEATO and UNESCO without knowing the original words from which they were formed.

    “首字母”的词汇，或首字母缩写词。将一系列词汇的首字母结合起来形成一个新词是缩写词的另一个方法。例如，NATO就是“北大西洋公约组织”的首字母缩写词。不仅可以使用首字母，也可以将最初的音节或词汇的部分组合起来，如EUROMART（“欧洲共同市场”）和 用于“无线电探测与范围”的雷达（radar）。首字母缩写词变得越来越普遍。在许多情况下，人们会使用像激光（laser）和微波激射器（maser）或东南亚条约组织（SEATO）和联合国教科文组织（UNESCO）这样的词汇，而不了解那些形成它们的原生词。

   Imitation of Sounds. Some words are formed as imitations of natural sounds. These words are onomatopoeic, or echoic. Examples are bang, crash, fizz, hiss, pop, and sizzle. Some are iterative in form as tweet-tweet and pitter-patter. Such imitative words are EXPRESSIVE and vivid.

    模仿声音的词汇。一些词汇是模仿自然声音形成的。这些词汇都是拟声的，或回声词。例子有砰（bang）的一声，哗啦声（crash），嘶嘶声（fizz），嘘声（hiss），砰（pop）的响声以及油煎食物时的嘶嘶声（sizzle）。一些是像小鸟的啾啾声（tweet-tweet）和劈劈啪啪的下雨声（pitter- patter）这种重复的形式。这样的模仿词富于表现力又生动形象。

   “Name” words.  A limited but interesting group of words comes from the names of persons or places. The names of scientists, for example, have come to be employed as common nouns—faraday, joule, ohm, and watt. Words such as epicurean, platonic, stoic, and jeremiad remind use of classical and biblical times. Other “name” words include cardigan, macintosh, and guillotine. Words coming form place-names include meander, canter, mackinaw, canary, and tweed.

    “名称”词汇。一种有限的，但有趣的一组词汇来自人名或地名。例如，用科学家的名字作为普通名词---法拉第、焦耳、欧姆和瓦特。比如伊壁鸠鲁的、柏拉图式的、斯多葛派的和杰里迈亚这样的词汇使人想起古典和圣经时代的用法。其它的名称词汇包括卡迪甘恩伯爵，麦金托什和吉约坦。来自地名的词汇包括米恩德尔，坎特、麦基诺、加那利和特威德。

   Blending. Telescoping two words into one, creation, as in slide (from slip and glide), twirl (twist and whirl), and brunch (breakfast and lunch). Other examples are nucleonic, radiotrician, sportscast, astronaut, and smog. Many humorous blends appear, such as alcoholiday, slanguage, and insinuendo.

    混合词。将两个词汇合成一个词，创造词，比如使…滑行（slide）（来自滑行slip和滑动glide），使…旋转twirl（来自扭弯twist和旋转whirl），以及早午餐（来自早餐breakfast和午餐lunch）。其它的例子是核子的（nucleonic）、radio-trician、运动比赛转播（sportscast）、宇航员（astronaut）以及烟雾（smog）。还出现了许多幽默的混合词，比如饮酒的闲暇时光（alcoholiday），使用俚语的表现法（slanguage），and暗讽（insinuendo）。

   Changes in Words.  After entering the language, words continue to have a history. They change, even as people do, and many have varied “careers.” The changes that occur may be considered under the following headings:

    词汇的变化。在进入语言之后，词汇的历史还在继续。它们变化着，正如人的变化一样，而且许多人都有不同的“职业”。在下列标题下可被视为发生的变化：

   Degeneration and Elevation.  Words may rise or fall in status. The word villain, which originally meant “farm laborer,” is one example of degeneration in meaning. Others are knave, imp, and varlet, which at one time merely meant “boy”; lust, which meant simply “pleasure”; and wench, “young girl.” Name for lowly positions, for rural inhabitants (as opposed to presumably sophisticated city-dwellers), for foreigners, and for death are subject to degeneration and at times to euphemistic substitutions. For example, cemetery took the place of graveyard, but today in the United States, memorial park, cloister, and burial abbey are being substituted for cemetery, as are casket for coffin and funeral car for hearse.

    衰退与提升。词汇的状况可升可降。反派角色一词，它的原意是指“农场劳力”，是一个在意思上衰退的例子。其它的例子是无赖、玩童和恶棍，它一度只是指“男孩”；强烈欲望，只是指“快乐”；而少妇是指“少女”。对卑微的地位，对农村的居民命名（相对于可能复杂的城市居民），对外国人，以及对死亡主题的命名会衰退，而且有时会使用委婉的替代词。例如，公墓替代了墓地，但在今天的美国，陵园、回廊以及埋葬的修道院正在被公墓所取代，正如骨灰盒取代了棺材，灵车取代了柩车。

   Along with the many pejorative changes, one may observe the opposite tendency in a number of words. Some terms for position or rank have risen in prestige from lowly origins. Originally a minister was a servant, and a marshal was a stable-boy who looked after the horses. In like manner, throughout the centuries a number of organized groups have accepted derisive names and have made them respected. Instances are Quaker, Shaker, and Hoosier. The word fond has risen from its etymological meaning of “foolish” to “affectionate,” and smart has been elevated from an earlier meaning pertaining to pain to a meaning pertaining to mental alertness and elegance in dress or appearance.

    除了许多贬义词的变化，人们会观察到一些词汇相反的趋势。一些有关职位或等级的术语从卑微的起源获得了声望。起初，大臣（minister）就是仆人，而司仪（marshal）是照看马匹的马夫。同样，整个世纪以来，许多有组织的团体都接受了这种嘲弄的名称，并使它们受到了尊重。例子是贵格会教徒、震教徒和胡希尔人。喜爱的（fond）一词从其词源学“愚蠢的”意思上升到“深情的”，而衣着得体的（smart）已从早期与痛苦有关的意思上升到与智力机敏和穿着或外表优雅的意思。

   Generalization and Specialization.  In the process of change, words also expand or contract. At times a word acquires an extended meaning instead of the narrower one it once had. For example, the words throw—from Old English ðrawan, originally meaning “to turn, to Twist”—has become so generalized that we are no longer aware of its having any connection with twisting. For centuries the word free meant “noble’ or “of high birth. Gradually it has gained a wider sense until it now means “unrestricted.

    一般化与专业化。在变化的过程中，词汇也会扩展和收缩。有时，一个单词需要扩展含义来替代它曾经具有意思。例如，投（throw）这个词，源自古英语ðrawan，最初的意思是“转向，扭转”---已变得如此一般化，以至于我们已经不了解它与扭转有任何联系。几个世纪以来，自由的（free）这个词意味着“贵族的”或“出身高贵的”。渐渐地，它获得了一种更宽的含义，到现在它表示的是“不受限制的”意思。

   Far more frequent than the foregoing are words that have narrowed their significance. In Old English, the meaning of wedd was “pledge.” It appeared in the compound wedlac, the second element meaning “an offering.” The modern word wedlock has narrowed itself to one particular kind of pledge. To Chaucer, rent meant “revenue,” and rape signified any kind of forcible deprival. Many Modern English terms in science, all minutely specialized, represent more generalized predecessors.

    比前面提及更加频繁的是那些缩小它们意义的词汇。在古英语中，wedd的意思是“誓言”。它出现在复合词wedlac中，第二元素的意思是“供品”。现代的wedlock一词已将它本身缩小到一种特殊的誓言。对乔叟而言，税金（rent）意味着“收入”，而强奸（rape）意指任何一种强制的剥夺。现代英语的许多科学术语都非常专业化，代表了更广义的前任。

   Exaggeration and Understatement.  Meanings of words are also changed by the use of hyperbole, or exaggeration, and by understatement. Hyperbole—deliberate exaggeration---causes EXPRESSIONS of strength to diminish in effect and grow toward feebleness, as may be seen in the use of intensives. Adverbs like awfully, enormously, frightfully, and tremendously are now employed for quite trivial matters. Adjectives indicating approval and disapproval, such as grand, gorgeous, superb, dreadful, horrible, and outrageous, are employed similarly, thereby weakening the distinctive qualities of each word.

夸张与含蓄陈述。词汇的含义也会因使用夸张，或夸张手法，以及通过含蓄陈述而改变。夸张---故意的夸张手法---使得表达的力量在效果上减弱并逐渐虚弱，就像在使用加强语的副词中看到的那样。像可怕地、巨大地、恐怖地以及惊人地这些副词现在都被用在非常琐碎的事情上。表示赞成和不造成的形容词，比如宏伟的、华丽的、辉煌的、令人畏惧的、可怕的以及骇人的也是相同的用法，从而削弱了每个词的独特性。

   As there is “too much” in exaggeration, so there is “too little” in understatement, the tradition of which reaches back to the Old English period. Understatement is heard in such negative statements as “not bad,” when giving approval. Another instance may be found in rather, which has been in English from the earliest period, although Old Englishhraðe had the meaning of “quick” and “early,” rather than “preferred.” The modern rather is the comparative of rathe. From the meaning “earlier,” rather changed to include the idea of “prefer,” as shown in Shakespeare’s line from Hamlet, “And makes us rather bear those ills we have … .” In addition to signifying preference, rather has come to mean “moderately,” as in “rather good.”

正如在夸张中有“太多”（too much）一样，在含蓄中同样有“太少”（too little），这种传统可追溯到古英语时期。当给予赞同的表达时，含蓄听上去就像是“不错”（not bad）这样的消极陈述。人们可以在更早时期的英语中发现另一个例子宁愿（rather），尽管古英语hraðe具有“快的”和“早的”的意思，而不是“宁可”。现代的rather是迅速（rathe）的比较级。从“更早”的意思来看，rather变成了包含“更喜爱”的意图，如同莎士比亚在《哈姆雷特》中的一段对白所示“让我们宁愿忍受我们的病痛… .”。除了表示偏好之外，rather还表示“适中地”的意思，正如在“相当不错”中的那样。

   Abbreviation and extension.  Abbreviating may affect the end, the beginning, or the middle, or a combination of these, of the words it shortens. Generally, clipped words lose sounds at the end, as gas for gasoline. Occasionally a word will lose a sound or syllable at the beginning, as mend from amend, tend from attend. In each case here, the vocabulary has been enriched, for there is a useful differentiation in meaning between the original word and the abbreviated form. Phrase shortenings may be observed in good-bye from “God be with you” and farewell from “fare you (thee) well.” The extension of words is not so prevalent as abbreviation. Occasionally a word adds an extra letter and perhaps an extra sound, as thunder (from unor) and sound (from soun).

    缩写和延伸。缩写可能会影响结尾、开头，或中间，或者这些词汇缩短时的组合。通常，省略词会失去结尾音，比如汽油（gas）替代汽油（gasoline）那样。偶尔一个词会失去开头的一个音或音节，比如修理（mend）替代了修改（amend），照管（tend）替代了陪同（attend）一样。在这里的每种情况中，词汇都得到了丰富，因为在原词与缩写形式间的意思存在一种有用的差异化。人们可以从来自“上帝与你同在”（God be with you）的再见 （good-bye）和来自再见“fare you (thee) well”的一路顺风（farewell）中观察到短语缩略词。这些词汇的延伸并不像缩写那样普遍。偶尔，一个词加上一个额外的字母，也许是一个额外的音，比如雷声（来自unor），以及声音（来自soun）。

   Metathesis and Folk Etymology.  The kinds of changes discussed thus far result mainly in alteration of means. The changes caused by metathesis and Folk etymology primarily affect the sounds. Metathesis refers to the interchanging of certain phonemes (speech sounds) by the human tongue, principally l, r, and s, as may be observed in the pronunciation aks for ask. The modern word grass was grs in Old English; bird was brid, and fresh was fersc. Other word that show metathesis are third, thresh, and through.

    音位转换和民间词源。到目前为止讨论的各种变化的结果主要在手段的改变。由音位转换和民间词源引发的变化主要影响语音。音位转换是指由人类语言交换的某些音素（讲话的声音），主要是l，r，和s，正如在发音中可以观察到ask替代了aks。现代的单词grass（草地）在古英语中是grs；鸟（bird）是brid，以及新鲜的（fresh）是fersc。其它表示音位转换的词是第三（third）、推敲（thresh,）和穿过（through）。

   In folk (popular) etymology, the form of a word is altered to make it reflect a fancied likeness to another word with which it resembles in sound, as in belfry from French berfrei (“tower”). Ber sounded somewhat like bell, and everyone knows that bells belong in towers; therefore, ber became bell and gave us belfry. Similarly, hangnail came from angnail. The first syllable is from Old English ang (“pain”), but it has become hang, because hang seemed more plausible. Other instances are mushroom from Old French mouscheron and cockroach from Spanish cucaracha.

    在民间（受欢迎的）词源中，改变一个词的形式使其在发音上与另一个词有一种虚构的相似，比如来自法语berfrei（塔楼）的钟楼（belfry）。Ber发音有点像钟（bell）的发音，而人们知道，钟属于塔楼；因此，ber变成了钟（bell），给了我们钟楼（belfry）一词。同样，倒刺（hangnail）来自angnail。第一个音阶来自古英语ang（“痛”），但已变成了悬挂（hang），因为hang似乎更可信。其它的例子是来自古法语mouscheron的蘑菇（mushroom）和来自西班牙语cucaracha的蟑螂（cockroach）。

   Shifts in Association.  Each word is an idea-complex made up of a primary meaning with a number of associated meanings. For example, the basic meaning of begin is “to set in motion, to start.” But associated with this are other meanings, such as “creation,” “youth,” and “birth.”

    关联的转换。每个词都是一个由原义与许多联想含义组成的意图复合体。例如，开始（begin）的基本含义是“使运动开始，开始”。但与此相关联的还有其它的含义，例如“创造”，“青春”和“诞生”。

   The shift of association may be observed in the word ambition, from the Latin ambitio, signifying “going around.” This meaning was applied to the going about of a politician to get votes, and the resulting secondary meaning grew to be the chief one attached to the word. Since politicians eagerly pursue a particular aim, the idea of going about became generalized, so that it denoted desire for anything that involved a struggle. To Shakespeare and Milton, ambition was not a good quality. But a later shift of emphasis was ameliorative, and today ambition is considered desirable and is even urged on youth. Thus we see four shifts in the development of the meaning of ambition: (1) “a going around,” (2) “electioneering,” (3) “evil pursuit of place or power,” and (4) “initiative.”

    在野心（ambition）这个词中人们可以观察到联想的转变，它来自拉丁语志向（ambitio），意思是“四处走动”。这个意思被用来表示政客为获得选票而到处活动，由此所产生的次要含义逐渐成为了附属于该词的主要含义。由于政客们急切地追求特殊的目标，四处走动的意图变得普遍化，因此它表示对任何涉及争斗的欲望。对莎士比亚和米尔顿来说，野心并不是一种良好品质。但后来重点的转变有所改善，但今天，野心被认为是可取的，甚至用它来鞭策青年人。所以，在野心含义的发展中我们看到了四种转变：（1）“四处走动”，（2）“竞选活动”，（3）“地位或权力的邪恶追求”，以及（4）“主动性”。

   Similarly, nice has shifted from its etymological meaning “ignorant,” through its early English sense “foolish” and later ones such as “particular” and “discriminating,” to its broad meaning of “pleasant” and “desirable,” although “discriminating” is still a living meaning.

    同样，挑剔的（nice）从其词源的含义“无知的”，经过其早期的英语含义“愚蠢的”，以及后来的像“特定的”和“有识别力的”已转变成“愉快的”和“可取的”广泛含义，尽管“有识别力的”依然是一个在使用的含义。

   Radiation of Meaning.  It is the nature of word to have one principal meaning with a periphery of associated meanings. One can see, therefore, why words multiply, either by splitting into two or more separate words or by gaining many key meanings so that they are employed in different contexts to indicate distinct things or ideas. This feature accounts for the doublets in the language—a pair of words from the same origin, differently derived. For example, in English we find ward (Norman French) and guard (Parisian French), both from the same Germanic source. Pairs from the Greek, the first being the earlier borrowing and the second the later, are balm, balsam; blame, blaspheme; and priest, presbyter. Other doublets in Modern English from the same root, one from Old English and one from Scandinavian, are no and nay and shirt and skirt, the first of each pair being from Old English.

    含义的辐射。拥有一种主要的含义，并带有关联的外围含义是单词的本质。因此，人们能够明白为，通过分裂成两个或更多单独的词，或者获得许多关键的含义，词汇为什么会增多，以便将它们用于不同的语境来表示独特的事物或意图。这种特性阐述了语言中的成对词---同源的一对词汇，不同的衍生。例如，在英语中，我们发现病房（ward）（诺曼法语）和看守（guard）（巴黎法语），两者都来源于相同日耳曼语来源。来自希腊语的成对词，第一部分是更早的借用，第二部分较晚些，有镇痛药膏（balm），香脂（balsam）；责怪（blame），亵渎（blaspheme）；以及牧师（priest），长老（presbyter）。在现代英语中还有相同词根的其它成对词，一部分来自古英语，而一部分来自斯堪的那维亚语，它们是没有（no） 和不（nay） 以及衬衫（shirt）和 女裙（skirt），每对词的第一词都来自古英语。

   That a word itself need not multiply in order to have radiation in meaning is evident from looking into any large dictionary. A simple word may have dozens of separate meanings, all developed by association from the same source. Each meaning develops new referent and undergoes a semantic shift, as in the case of the “eye” of a potato or of a needle. A physical similarity causes a transfer of meaning. By this process, meanings of words are always broadening and shifting. We speak of the “legs” of a table, “hands” of a clock, “foot” of a mountain, and “root” of a tooth or even “root of the matter,” the last involving a higher level of abstraction. Many ordinary words such as brand, break, color, deep, and draft illustrate the radiation of meaning in English words.

翻阅任何大词典都会明白，一个词本身为在含义上拥有辐射功能并不需要增加什么。一个简单的词可能拥有几十种单独的含义，这都是由来自从同源的关联发展而来的。每种含义都会发展出新的指示物，并会经历一种语义上转换，就像土豆的“眼”或针“眼”，以及牙“根”，甚至是“事物的根源”的情况一样，最后一个涉及更高层次的抽象。许多普通词汇，例如品牌、打破、颜色、深的以及草稿都证明了英语词汇含义的辐射。

 

                                          MARGARET M.BRYANT

                                Author of “Modern English and Its Heritage”

                                         玛格丽特·M. 布赖恩特

                                      “现代英语及其遗产”的作者

 

                                            2022年9月12日译

 

（译者注：该部分词条位列《大美百科全书》1985年版，第10卷，第423页至425页）

待续部分：PRONUNCIATION AND SPELLING发音方法与拼写；THE FUTURE OF ENGLISH英语的未来。