PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION. Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a grou of people who have some characteristic in common that is not shared by all people. Discrimination is negative behavior directed toward some group. Discrimination, as the term is used here, is behavior that is unfair to a target group.

偏见与歧视。偏见是一种对不被所有人共享，带有某种共同特征的一群人的消极态度。歧视是针对某些群体的消极行为。歧视，正如在此使用的术语，是对目标群体不公正的行为。

An attitude is a person’s tendency to respond favorably or unfavorably to the objects and situations he or she encounters. Attitudes are made up of THREE components: affective, cognitive, and behavioral. The affective component concerns how much the person likes or dislikes the attitude-object (some person, group, thing, or situation). The cognitive component consists of the person’s beliefs about the attitude-object. In the case of prejudice, many of these beliefs are stereotypes about some group and its members. A stereotype may have some basis in fact, but is usually an overly simplistic and inaccurate belief that all members of a certain group believe the same things and act in the same manner. The behavioral component concerns the way a person feels that he or she should act toward the attitude-object.

态度是一个人对他或她邂逅的对象和状况表现出的有利或不利回应的倾向。态度由三种成分构成：情感，认知和行为。情感成分涉及这个人多么喜欢或不喜欢那个态度对象（某些人，团体，事物或状况）。认知成分包含人对态度对象的信念。在偏见的例子中，许多这些信念都是对某些群体以及其成员的成见。成见可能具有一些事实理由，但通常是某一群体的所有成员相信同样的事情，以同样的方式行动的过于简单化和不准确的信念。行为成分涉及一个人感觉他或她应该对态度对象行动的方式。

When prejudice exists, all THREE of these components are negative. Consider, for example, a man who is prejudiced against Mexican Americans. He dislikes them and may feel uneasy around them (the affective component). He believes that “Mexicans are dirty and dishonest” (the cognitive component). And finally he does not want to associate with Mexican American (the behavioral component).

当偏见出现时，所有这三种成分都是消极的。例如，试想对墨西哥裔美国人有偏见的一个人。他不喜欢他们，而且同他们在一起可能会感到不舒服（情感成分）。他认为“墨西哥人脏，且不诚实”（认知成分）。最后，他不想与墨西哥裔美国人交往（行为成分）。

Discrimination can be practiced by an individual or an institution. Institutional discrimination occurs when some large organization (for example, a government, business, or school) engages in practices that are unfair to members of some group and puts them at a disadvantage. Individual and institutional discrimination differ in the following respects. Individual discrimination is carried out by people acting on their own. Institutional discrimination occurs when an institution makes laws or rules that affect the behavior of large numbers of people. For example, a white person who throws a rock at a school bus that is taking black children to a previously all-white school is engaging in individual discrimination. If the state legislature passes a law that prevents black children from attending the school, this is institutional discrimination.

歧视可由个人或机构实施。当一些大型组织（例如，政府、公司或学校）从事对某些群体成员不公平的行为，并使他们处于了劣势，就出现了机构性歧视。个人歧视和机构性歧视有以下几方面的不同。个人歧视是由人们自己的行动来实施的。当机构制定法律或规则影响了大量人员的行为时，就出现了机构性歧视。例如，一个白人向乘坐黑人孩子去以前都是白人学校的校车扔石头就是在进行个人歧视。如果州立法通过法律禁止黑人孩子上学，这就是机构性歧视。

In most instances discrimination is directed against a relatively powerless group by members of a powerful dominant group. There is, however, a kind of discrimination that does not fit this pattern. It is called reverse discrimination. In reverse discrimination members of a powerful group treat members of their own group less favorably than they treat members of a different, less powerful group. For example, a company owned by whites that hires a black person over a white person with the same qualifications could be accused of reverse discrimination. Reverse discrimination must be differentiated from tokenism, a trivial behavior that appears to greatly benefit a powerless group, but in fact does not. It also differs from affirmative action, or minority-reference programs to remedy the effects of past discrimination.

在大多数情况下，歧视都是由强势的，占主导地位的群体针对相对弱势的群体。然而，有一种歧视并不适合这种模式。它被称为反向歧视。在反向歧视中，强势群体的成员对待他们自己的成员还不如他们对待别的，不那么强势的成员好。例如，一家白人拥有的公司雇用黑人而没有雇用具有同样资历的白人可能会被指控为反向歧视。反向歧视必须与装门面区别开来，一种看上去对弱势群体很有好处的微不足道的行为，但事实却并非如此。它也不同于平权行动，或者为弥补过去的歧视影响的少数族裔参照项目。

The Relation Between Prejudice and Discrimination. Prejudice often precedes and causes discrimination. Discrimination may permit an individual to act out negative feelings toward a target group. It can also serve to confirm a person’s negative beliefs about a target group. For example if members of a target group are prevented from getting an adequate education, this will serve to confirm the stereotype of them as stupid and uneducated.

偏见与歧视的关系。在许多情况下，偏见在先，然后导致歧视。歧视可能会使个人对目标群体表现出消极情绪。它也能用来确认一个人对目标群体的消极信念。例如，如果目标群体的成员被阻止获得适当的教育，这就可以确认他们的成见就是愚蠢和未受教育的。    

Discrimination may also occur in the absence of prejudice. Colonialism provides an illustration of this. In colonialism one country enters another and establishes dominance and control there. Usually, the colonial power takes away the native peoples rights and resources. Its behavior is not motivated by prejudice. Rather the dominant group acts as it does because the natives have certain resources—such as land and minerals—that the dominant group desires. To gain control over these resources, the dominant group may use force and may even attempt to annihilate the group that possesses them. Once control has been obtained, it will be maintained by the passage of laws. In such instances, prejudice will follow discrimination.

在没有偏见的情况下也可能出现歧视。殖民主义对此就提供了一个例证。在殖民主义中，一个国家进入另一个国家并在那里建立起统治和控制。通常，殖民国家的力量控制了原住民的权力和资源。这种行为不是由于偏见。相反，实际上优势群体这样做是因为原住民有某些资源---诸如优势群体所需要的土地和矿产。为了占有这些资源，优势群体会使用武力，甚至可能会消灭拥有它们的群体。一旦获得了控制，就会通过法律来维持这种控制。在这种情况下，歧视就会带来偏见。

The costs of Prejudice and Discrimination. Obviously, a group that is the target of prejudice and discrimination will suffer politically and economically. For example, blacks in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) had little, if any, political power. Laws prohibited them from holding certain jobs, and the average salary of blacks who did find jobs was less than half of that of white workers. The target group may also pay a psychological cost for prejudice and discrimination. One well-documented psychological cost is feelings of inferiority among target-group members. For example, in the early 1950’s it was found that black American children saw other blacks as “bad” and “dirty.” After a period of time, target-group members may even act in accordance with the stereotypes about them. This is illustrated by the behavior of slaves in the southern United States. As the result of prolonged slavery, many of them became docile, lazy, and irresponsible, showing an almost childlike dependence on the slave-master. This phenomenon is not confined to black slaves. Many of the Jews in Nazi concentration camps showed similar behavior. In instances of extreme discrimination a phenomenon known as identification with the aggressor may occur. The target-group members identify with and attempt to be like their oppressors. For example, some of the Jews in Nazi concentration camps wore scraps of clothing (usually insignias) from the guards’ uniforms and even helped the guards kill their fellow inmates.

偏见与歧视的成本。很明显，一个被作为偏见和歧视目标的群体在政治和经济上就会遭受损失。例如，南罗得西亚（现在的津巴布韦）的黑人几乎没有什么政治权力。法律禁止他们从事某些工作，而就是找到工作的黑人的平均工资也不到白人员工工资的一半。目标群体还可能为偏见和歧视付出心理的代价。例如，在20世纪50年代早期，调查发现，美国的黑人孩子认为其他的黑人是“坏的”和“肮脏的”。一段时期后，目标群体成员甚至可能会按照对他们的成见行事。美国南部奴隶的行为就证明了这点。由于长期奴隶制的结果，他们许多人变得驯服、懒散和不负责任，对奴隶主表现出了一种近乎孩子般的依赖。这种现象并不仅限于黑人奴隶。许多在纳粹集中营里的犹太人也表现出了类似的行为。在极端歧视的情况下，可能出现一种被称为认同攻击者的现象。目标群体成员认同并试图去模仿压迫者。例如，在纳粹集中营里的一些犹太人穿着从守卫制服上得到的衣服碎片（通常是一些标志），甚至帮着守卫杀害他们的狱友。

Discrimination can also create a considerable cost for the dominant group. When the dominant group restricts the freedom of the target-group members, it restricts its own members’ freedom as well. Rigid patterns of discrimination are often quite costly to maintain. For example, South Africa’s policy of apartheid (separate development of the major population groups) requires the duplication of services: for example, separate washrooms and separate hospitals for whites and nonwhites. The South African government must spend large amounts of money to enforce apartheid. Because black South Africans are discriminated against in education and jobs, they cannot fully contribute to the country’s economy. White South Africans do enjoy a high standard of living. Many economists have argued, however, that South Africans, both black and white, would prosper much more without apartheid. In some cases individual members of the dominant group suffer the same disadvantages as members of the target group. For example, in the southern United States, poor whites were denied the benefits of social-welfare programs that were not initiated because the programs also would have benefited poor blacks.

对于优势群体，歧视也会造成相当大的成本。当优势群体约束目标群体成员的自由时，它也约束了它自己成员的自由。要维护歧视的僵化模式往往要付出很高的代价。例如，南非的种族隔离政策（主要的人口群体单独发展）需要重复的服务：例如，为白人和非白人设立单独的卫生间和单独的医院。南非政府必须花费大量资金实施种族隔离。因为南非的黑人在教育和工上受到歧视，因此他们无法充分地为国家的经济做出贡献。南非的白人的确享有了高标准的生活。然而，许多经济学家认为，既是黑人也是白人的南非如果没有种族隔离会更加繁荣。在某些情况下，优势群体的个体成员与目标群体的成员会遭受同样的损害。例如，在美国南部，贫困的白人得不到尚未启动的社会福利项目的好处，因为这些项目也会让贫困的黑人受益。

Characteristics of the Target Group. Any group can become the target of prejudice and discrimination, but no set of characteristics will automatically make a group of people the object of negative attitudes and behavior. Prejudice can be based on a group’s age, occupation, social class, region of residence, or dozens of other characteristics.

目标群体的特征。任何群体都可能成为偏见和歧视的目标，但尚没有一组特征会自动地使一群人成为消极态度和行为的对象。偏见可能基于一个群体的年龄、职业、社会阶层、居住区域，或许多其它特征。

Among a multitude of different kinds of prejudice, the most common are ethnic prejudice and sexism. Ethnic prejudice is based on a group’s racial or cultural characteristics. Although the specific ethnic characteristics of a target group vary from culture to culture, ethnic prejudice can be found almost everywhere in the world. Sexism, also very widespread, is negative attitude toward a group of people because of their physiological sex. Since ethnic and sex prejudice are so common, the remainder of this article will focus on their causes and possible way to reduce or eliminate them.

在众多不同类型的偏见中，最常见的是种族偏见和性别歧视。种族偏见是基于一个群体的种族或文化特征。尽管一个目标群体的特定种族特征因文化差别而不同，但在世界各地都可以发现种族偏见。性别歧视，也非常普遍，是因为他们的生理性别而对一群人的消极态度。由于种族和性别偏见是如此的普遍，因此该文的其余部分会集中于它们的原因，以及减少或消除它们的可能途径。

                                                                                                                     2022年3月31日译

（译者注：该词条部分位列《大美百科全书》1985年版，第22卷，第545a页至545b页）

（待续部分：1、Ethnic Prejudice and Discrimination 种族偏见与歧视；2、Sexism 性别歧视）