PSYCHOLOGY is the scientific study of the behavior of humans and other animals. The term behavior refers both to overt, observable actions and to covert, unobservable (internal) mental processes and states such as perception, thought, reasoning, problems-solving, emotions, and feelings. Systematic, objective observations of overt behavior, including verbal behavior, are the sources of psychologists’ inferences about these mental processes and states. The chief goals of psychology are the accurate and precise descriptions of conduct, thought, and feelings and the investigation of the many variables-biological, personal, and social—that interact in determining behavior and mental processes. The field of psychology is therefore intimately connected with physiology and with other behavioral sciences such as anthropology and sociology.

心理学是对人类和动物行为的科学研究。行为这个术语既指公开的，看得见的行为，也指看不见的（内在的）精神过程和状态，诸如感知、思考、推理、解决问题、情绪和感觉。对可见行为系统、客观的观察，包括言语行为，都是心理学家推断这些精神过程和状态的来源。心理学的主要目标是准确而确切地对行为、思考以及感觉进行描述，并且对许多生物参数、个人参数和社会参数---在决定行为和精神过程中的互相作用进行调查。因此，心理学领域与生理学密切相关，也与其它行为科学，如人类学和社会学密切相关。

Given the broad terrain encompassed in this definition of psychology, together with the fact that the field is continually growing in size and complexity, no single psychologist could possibly cover all aspects of the field. Contemporary psychologists tend to be specialists in one major area or subfield, and the most adequate and comprehensive definition of psychology can be derived from descriptions of what specialists in each area actually do as scientists and practitioners. A definition derived in this way, however, changes as the field expands and becomes enriched.

考虑到在心理学这个定义中包含的广泛领域，加上该领域在规模和复杂性方面不断发展的事实，没有一位心理学家可以涵盖该领域的各个方面。当代心理学家都趋向于在一个主要领域或子领域成为专家，而对心理学最充分和最全面的定义可以从每个领域中实际是科学家和从业者的描述中推导出来。然而，用这种方法推导出的定义随着该领域的扩展和丰富而变化。

The subfields or specialties of psychology may be grouped into two major categories, basic and applied. The basic areas are those concerned with research and the discovery of fundamental facts and principles. The applied areas of psychology are those in which the facts and principle discovered in basic research are used to accomplish pragmatic, socially useful goals. These goals include treating emotionally disturbed people, reducing intergroup tensions, improving educational procedures, and helping to design equipment that can be used safely and effectively. The distinction between basic and applied areas is not fixed or clear-cut. Basic research contributes to applied psychology, and findings from applied work may advance basic psychology. For example, a developmental psychologist, interested primarily in basic research, may evaluate preschool programs to determine how specific early training procedures affect cognitive development. A clinical psychologist, interested primarily in treatment, may analyze the case histories of his patients to test hypotheses about factors underlying psychological maladjustment.

心理学的子领域或专业可分为两大类，基础的和应用的。基础领域是那些涉及研究和对基本事实和原则的发现。心理学的应用领域是在基础研究中发现的用来现实实际的，在社会上有用目标的那些事实和原则。这些目标包括治疗在情绪上紊乱的人，降低群际关系紧张，改善教育过程，以及帮助设计能够安全使用和有效的设备。基础与应用领域之间的差别并不固定，也未明确。基础研究有助于应用心理学，而来自应用工作的发现可以促进基础心理学。例如，一个兴趣主要在基础研究的发展心理学家，可以评估学前教育项目，来确定特定的早期训练程序是如何影响认知发展的。一位兴趣主要在治疗的临床心理学家，可以分析其病人的病历，来测试潜在的心理失调因素的假定。

Psychiatry, a medical field, is clearly differentiated from psychology. Psychiatrists diagnose and treat emotional disturbances and mental illness through the use of various therapy techniques—such as drugs, shock, or surgery—in addition to psychotherapy. A clinical psychologist, who generally holds a Ph. D. degree in psychology rather than a medical degree, also diagnoses and treats emotionally disturbed patients, but the clinical psychologist uses only psychotherapeutic methods.

See also Psychiatry.

精神病学，一个医学的领域，明显不同于心理学。精神病医生通过使用各种治疗方法---如药物、休克，或外科手术---除了精神疗法，诊断和治疗情绪困扰和精神疾病。临床心理学家，通常是获得了心理学博士学位，而不是医学学位的人，他们也诊断和治疗在情绪上紊乱的病人，但临床心理学家只用心理治疗的方法。

也可参阅精神病学词条。

 FIELDS OF BASIC PSYCHOLOGY

Experimental Psychology. The hallmark of this area is the controlled laboratory experiment with very precise methods of measurement. The basic problems investigated by experimental psychologists are in the areas of sensation and perception, learning and memory, and physiological psychology. Such problems include how environmental stimuli are experienced and interpreted, how we learn and remember, the nature and determinants of motivation, and the influences of hormones and nerve functioning on behavior. Specialists in other areas of psychology, such as developmental, social, and personality psychology, also use experimental methods.

基础心理学的领域

实验心理学。这个领域的特点是用非常精确的测量方法控制实验室的实验。由实验心理学家调查的基本问题是感觉与知觉，学习与记忆，以及生理心理学的领域。这些问题包括如何体验和解读环境刺激，我们是如何学习和记忆的，动机的性质和决定因素，以及激素和神经功能对行为的影响。在其它心理学领域的专家，如发展心理学，社会心理学以及人格心理学，也使用实验的方法。

Sensation and Perception.  Sensation and perception were the predominant interests of 19^th century psychologists, and they continue to be of major importance. The central problems in sensation are the subjects’ capacities to receive and discriminate stimuli, as well as the reactions of the sense organs and related neural structures to the qualities intensity, extensity, and duration of sensory stimuli. The study of perception is concerned with how the vast number and variety of sensations or bit of information acquired through sense receptors are processed, organized, and interpreted to yield meaningful perceptions. For example, the retina receives only patterns of light rays, lines, and dots; yet we recognize people and objects very easily through these pattern. Thus, the perception psychologist studies the processes that intervene between the external world and our perception of it.

感觉与知觉。感觉与知觉是19世纪心理学家的主要兴趣，而且它们依然是至关重要的。感觉的核心问题是实验对象接受和排斥刺激的能力以及感觉器官反应的能力，以及有关对质的强度，空间性的神经结构，以及感官刺激的持续时间。知觉的研究涉及大量和各种各样的感觉或通过感觉接受器获得的信息单位是如何处理，组织，并被解读，来产生有意义的知觉。例如，视网膜只接收光线，线和点的模式；然而，我们通过这些模式可以非常容易地识别出人和物体。因此，知觉心理学家研究了介入外部世界与我们对其知觉的那些过程。

Learning and Memory.  The most prominent and active area of experimental psychology in the 20^th century has been the psychology of learning. This field concentrates on the study of how (under what conditions) association between stimuli and responses are formed and how responses become modified through experience and practice. An example of such an association is provided by the stimulus of a red light and the response of stepping on the brakes of an automobile. Memory (the retention of association) and forgetting (the loss of associations) are also important topics in the field of learning.

学习与记忆。20世纪实验心理学中最突出和最活跃的领域是学习心理学。这个领域集中研究的是（在什么条件下）在刺激和反应之间如何形成联系，以及通过经验和实践如何改进反应。由红灯的刺激和踩踏汽车刹车反应提供的就是这样一个相关的例子。记忆（保持关联）和遗忘（失去关联）也是学习领域中重要的话题。

Many different explanatory theories of learning and memory have been advanced, and these have stimulated vast amounts of fruitful research. For example, reinforcement theorists showed that responses that are followed by rewards (reinforcements) become stronger and are likely to be repeated while responses that are unrewarded or punished become weaker and eventually disappear. Evidence strongly indicates that not all learning is based on direct reinforcement, however. For example, responses can be acquired or modified through simple imitation of others.

许多不同的有关学习和记忆的解释性理论得到了发展，而这些理论激发了大量卓有成效的研究。例如，强化理论家展示，紧随奖励（强化）之后的反应会变得的更强，而没有奖励或惩罚的反应会变得更弱，可能会反复出现，最终会消失。然而，证据强有力地表明并不是所有的学习都基于直接的强化。例如，通过简单模仿他人就可以获得或改进反应。

Physiological Psychology.  Physiological psychologists study the relationships between biological processes, particularly neural and hormonal, and behavior. They often use animals as subjects. For example, research has shown that aggressive behavior increases when the amount of the hormone testosterone increases, and this behavior can be altered by stimulating, removing, or destroying specific brain structures. Other topics investigated by physiological psychologists are the effects of drugs on learning and emotion and the neurochemical changes in the sense organs and related neural structures produced by sensory stimulation.

生理心理学。生理心理学家研究了生理过程的各种关系，尤其是神经和激素以及行为之间的关系。他们常常用动物作为实验对象。例如，研究表明，当睾酮激素的数值增加时，攻击行为就会增加，而且这种行为可以通过刺激、消除或破坏特定的大脑结构而改变。由生理心理学家调查的其它话题是药物对学习和情绪的影响，以及由感觉刺激产生的感觉器官和与神经结构相关的神经化学物质的变化。

Behavior genetics is a new field, related to physiological psychology, that combines the techniques and method of psychology and genetics to investigate the hereditary antecedents of psychological characteristics. It has been well established that genetic factors govern physical characteristics such as eye color, height, and facial characteristics, but relatively little is known about the inheritance of intelligence, personality characteristics, emotional adjustment, and social behavior.

行为遗传学是一个与生理心理学有关的新领域，它结合了心理学和遗传学的技术和方法来研究心理特征的遗传因素。众所周知，遗传因素控制着身体的特征，如眼睛的颜色，身高和面部特征，但对智力的遗传特征，人格特征，情绪调节以及社会行为，相对而言我们了解的很少。

The old question of the hereditary or environmental determination of traits is no longer important, because modern psychologists regard all behavior as the product of the interaction between heredity and environment. In the case of intelligence tests, it is virtually impossible to separate the influences of the two factors. Heredity undoubtedly put limits on the individual’s potential, but the degree to which that potential is fulfilled in strongly affected by the individual’s experiences as well as by environmental conditions.

遗传或环境决定性状的老问题已不再重要了，因为现代心理学家已把所有行为都视为遗传和环境相互作用的产物。在对智力的测试中，几乎不可能分开这两种因素的影响。毫无疑问，遗传限制了个体的潜能，但在某种程度上，个体经历和环境条件强烈地影响着潜能的实现。

Comparative Psychology. The behaviors of various species are compared in order to discover how the biological differences among the species affect aspect of their behavior, such as sex, aggression, and cooperation. Comparative studies clarify the resemblances between humans and all other animal, as well as delimiting areas of human uniqueness. At the same time, comparative psychologists are concerned with the adaptive function of the responses they study and with the contribution of heredity and learning to the development of these responses.

比较心理学。比较各物种的行为是为了发现物种间的生物差异是如何影响他们行为的，如性别、攻击性和合作。比较研究阐明了人类和所有其它动物间的相似之处，而且界定了人类独特性的领域。同时，比较心理学家关心的是他们研究反应的适应功能，以及遗传和学习对这些反应的发展所做出的贡献。

Personality Psychology.  Studies in this area are concerned with the uniqueness of the individual. Personality psychologists study personality traits and attributes and investigate the biological and experiential factor that account for individual differences in personality structure, emotional reactions, and motivations.

人格心理学。在这一领域的研究关心的是个体的独特性。人格心理学家研究人格特征和属性，并调查在人格结构，情绪反应以及动机中解释个体差异的生物和经验因素。

Among the many prominent theories of personality, some, such as the Freudian or psychoanalytic theory, stress unconscious motives and psychological forces; some, such as behaviorist theories, stress the role of learning and early experience; and others the self-actualization theories, emphasize human potentiality and motivation to realize one’s full potential and capacities. The problems personality psychologist investigates, as well as the research methods used, are largely determined by the personality theory he or she holds.

在有关人格的许多重要的理论中，一些理论强调无意识动机和心理力量，诸如弗洛伊德或精神分析学说；一些理论强调学习的作用和早期的经历，如行为主义理论；而另一些自我实现的理论强调人类的潜能和实现个人的全部潜能和能力的动机。人格心理学家调查的问题，以及运用的研究方法在很大程度是由他或她持有的人格理论决定的。

Social Psychology.  The dominant topics in this field are the relationship between the individual and society, interactions among groups, and the role of membership in social, cultural, and socio-economic groups in shaping behavior, attitudes, and personality. Excellent techniques for measuring attitudes and surveying political and social opinions have been development by social psychologists. These techniques have been applied in propaganda and persuasion, intergroup conflict, prejudice, and conformity. See also SOCCIAL PSYCHOLOGY.

社会心理学。在这一领域的重要话题是在团体中相互作用的个体与社会的关系，以及成员在社会、文化和社会-经济团体中形成的行为、态度和个性的关系。社会心理学家已发展了衡量态度并调查政治与社会意见的极好方法。这些方法已应用于宣传和说服，群体间冲突，成见以及从众中。也可参阅社会心理学词条。

Developmental Psychology.  Developmental psychologists investigate changes associated with growing older, from conception to death, in cognitive and language abilities, personality, and social behavior. Childhood experiences have important effects on later behavior, and adult behavior cannot be explained without considering children’s social and cognitive development. The field of developmental psychology now also encompasses investigations of changes that take place during maturity and the later years, as well as the processes underlying these changes. The study of old age is called gerontology. See also DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY.

发展心理学。发展心理学家从怀孕到死亡，在认知和语言能力，个性以及社会行为方面调查了随年龄增长的变化情况。童年时期的经历对后来的行为具有重要影响，而不考虑孩子的社会与认知的发展，成年人的行为就无法解释。发展心理学的领域现在也包含了对成熟期和以后岁月变化的调查，以及这些变化之下的过程。对老年的研究被称为老人学。也可参阅发展心理学词条。

Cognitive Psychology.  This major area of psychology has made striking gains in importance and influence since the mid-1950’s. The cognitive psychologist studies the higher mental processes; that is, the processes of receiving, coding, processing, retrieving, and utilizing knowledge. The processes studies by cognitive psychologists include, among others, perception, language, intelligence, imagery, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, concept formation, and creativity. See also COGNITION.

认知心理学。自20世纪50年代，心理学的这一主要领域在重要性与影响力方面已取得了显著进展。认知心理学家研究了高级心理过程；也就是说，接收、编码、处理、检索并利用知识的过程。认知心理学家研究的这些过程，除了其它的之外，包括知觉、语言、智力、意象、推理、解决问题、形成概念以及创造力。也可参阅认知词条。

Quantitative or Psychometric Psychology. Since almost all psychological research involves measurement or evaluation, a psychometric specialist is needed to develop assessment techniques. Tests and other measures of psychological functions, personality characteristics, and attitudes must be constructed, and their validity, usefulness, and reliability must be established. Psychometricians contribute substantially to the methodology of psychology by inventing and perfecting statistical techniques that are useful for many areas of research.

定量或心理测量心理学。因为几乎所有的心理学研究都涉及到测量或评估，所以开发评定方法就需要心理测量专家。必须建立心理功能，个性特征以及态度的测试和其它措施，而且必须建立它们的有效性、有用性和可靠性。心理计量学家通过发明和完善对许多研究领域有用的统计方法，对心理学的方法论做出了重大贡献。

 APPLIED FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Clinical Psychology.  This is the largest field of specialization in psychology. About 29% of the members of the American Psychological Association are clinical psychologists. Most of them hold Ph D. degrees and work in clinics, hospitals, or private offices. Their primary activities are diagnosing and treating problems of emotional disturbance. They administer, score, and interpret psychological tests, and they interview and observe patients. During the last two or THREE year of postgraduate study, the clinical psychology logical method of treating behavior disorders and maladjustments, including individual and group therapeutic techniques.

 心理学的应用领域

临床心理学。这是心理学中最大的专业领域。大约29%的美国心理学协会成员都是临床心理学家。他们中的大多数人都持有博士学位，并在诊所、医院或私人办公室工作。他们的主要活动是诊断和治疗情绪困扰的问题。他们实施、评分和解释心理的测试，而且他们与病人交谈，并观察病人。在研究生学习的两三年时间里，符合逻辑的，治疗行为障碍和失调的临床心理学方法，包括了个体和团体治疗的那些方法。

In many clinical settings, a psychiatrist, a psychologist, and a social worker constitute a team, in which the psychologist takes primary responsibility for research and works with the psychiatrist in diagnosis and therapy of patients. The psychotherapeutic techniques used by the clinical psychologist depend largely on the theory of personality that he or she holds. Therapists influenced by behaviorism tend to use conditioning or behavior modification techniques to alleviate neurotic symptoms, while those who are psychoanalytically oriented are more likely to interview patients in depth in order to discover the underlying cause of that patient’s symptom. See also PSYCHOTHERAPY.

在许多临床环境中，精神病学家，心理学家，以及社会工作者组成了团队，其中，心理学家承担了研究的主要责任，并与精神病学家一起对病人进行诊断和治疗工作。临床心理学家使用的精神治疗方法在很大程度上取决于他或她掌握的人格理论。治疗专家受行为主义的影响倾向于使用条件反射或行为改变方法来缓和精神过敏的症状，而那些以精神分析为导向的专家为了发现病人症状潜在的原因，更有可能深入地问询病人的情况。也可参阅心理疗法词条。

Counseling Psychology.  Approximately 10% of all members of the American Psychological Association are employed in this prominent applied field. Although the counseling psychologist’s work is like the clinician’s in many respects, the counselor generally works with clients not suffering from severe emotional disturbances, but who are in need of help in making decisions about vocational and educational goals, social adjustment, or baffling problems. Guidance counselors working in educational setting help students in selecting study programs and careers, while family counselors attempt to help in resolving conflicts between husbands and wives or between parents and children.

咨询心理学。大约10%的美国心理学协会成员都在这一重要的领域从业。虽然，在许多方面咨询心理学家的工作有点像临床医生的工作，不过咨询师的工作通常是为那些未遭受严重情绪困扰的病人服务，但在职业和教育目标，适应社会，或令人困惑的问题方面，他们是需要帮助的人。在教育环境工作的指导顾问帮助学生选择学习计划和职业生涯，而家庭顾问试图帮助解决丈夫与妻子，或父母与孩子间的冲突。

Counselors administer tests of intelligence, aptitudes, interests, and personality to serve as bases for guidance and counseling. The number of counseling psychologists has increased substantially in response to the needs of high school, college, and university students for their services. A master’s degree is generally required for employment as a counseling psychologist, and many counselors hold Ph. D. degrees. See also GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING.

顾问对智力、倾向、兴趣以及个性进行测试，作为指导和咨询的基础。为满足高中、高校和大学学生的服务需求，咨询心理学专家的人数一直在增长。从事咨询心理学的专家通常都需要硕士学位，而许多顾问都拥有博士学位。也可参阅指导与咨询词条。

Educational and School Psychology.  Educational psychologists, specializing in learning and teaching, generally work in school settings, although many are in universities doing research on educational methods, developing and testing new techniques for more effective teaching, and helping to train future schoolteachers and school psychologists. School psychologists are more likely to function as clinical psychologists working in schools and dealing with the many serious emotional problems of children that are manifested outside the family for the first time during the elementary school year. School psychologists often serve as counselors working collaboratively with parents and teachers to help children with learning or emotional problems. They also constitute a valuable resource for teachers, offering suggestions for dealing with problems in the classroom. A master’s degree in psychology with special training in school psychology is generally a prerequisite to an appointment as a school psychologist, and many school psychologist hold Ph. D. degrees.

教育与学校心理学。那些专门从事学习与教学的教育心理学家通常都在学校的环境中工作，虽然许多人在大学里从事有关教育方法的研究，为更有效的教学开发和测试新方法，并帮助训练未来的老师和学校心理学家。在学校，学校心理学家更有可能充当临床心理学家的工作，并处理孩子在小学期间首次出现在家庭以外许多严重的情绪问题。学校心理学家常常作为顾问与父母和老师合作来帮助有学习或情感问题的孩子。他们也为老师组成了有价值的资源，为处理课堂中的问题提供建议。受过学校心理学特殊训练的心理学硕士通常是承担学校心理学专家职位的先决条件，而许多心理学专家都拥有博士学位。

Industrial and Organizational Psychology. A large and growing number of psychologists are concerned with problems related to industry in modern technological society. The first industrial psychologists dealt with problems of the worker as an individual and, specifically, the assessment, selection, and placement of personnel. Soon industrial psychologists were consulted to help in such tasks as developing conditions that reduce fatigue and boredom and maximize work efficiency; investigating constructive means of supervising personnel and improving employee morale; and designing machines and equipment that can be used most efficiently by human operators.

产业与组织心理学。越来越多的心理学家关注在现代技术社会中与产业相关的问题。开始，产业心理学家将工人的问题视为个体问题，具体来说就是对人员的评价、选择和安置。不久，产业心理学家就被请教来帮助诸如构建减少疲倦和无聊以及使工作效率最大化的条件；调查监督人员建设性的方法和提高员工的士气；并且设计可用于人工操作的最有效的机器和设备。

A new facet of industrial psychology, generally calledorganizational psychology, has emerged since the mid-1950’s. It stems from a recognition that the individual worker’s behavior is intimately related to the nature and characteristics of the organization in which he or he works. Organizational psychologists center their attention on the social and motivational aspects of corporations and other organizations. They apply psychological principles to the process of designing and organizing the work setting; they aid executives in making management decisions; and they are consulted on way of structuring the organization so that it can satisfy both management’s and workers’ goals, improve relations between management and the workers, and achieve greater efficiency and higher morale at all levels of the organization.

自20世纪50年代开始出现了产业心理学的一个新部分，通常被称为组织心理学。它源于一种认知，即个体工人的行为与他或她所工作的组织性质和特色密切相关。组织心理学家将他们的注意力集中在公司和其它组织的社会和动机方面。他们将心理学原理应用到设计和组织工作环境的过程之中；他们帮助高管制定管理决策；而且他们对构建组织方式提出建议，因此既能满足管理层的目标，又能满足工人的目标，改善管理层与工人间的关系，并在组织的各个层面实现较大的效率和更高的士气。

METHODS

All scientific psychological research is dedicated to the discovery and verification of facts about behavior and the conditions that elicit and change behavior. The enormous increase in the topics studied by psychologists, and in the complexity of these topics, has led to the development of many new methods of research as well as to the modification and improvement of many older ones.

方法

所有科学心理学的研究都致力于发现和验证有关行为的事实以及诱发和改变行为的条件。心理学家研究这些课题的大量增加，以及这些课题的复杂性，导致了许多研究方法的发展，也导致了许多老方法的修改和完善。

Experimental Methods. In most sciences, the experiment is the method of choice that enables the investigator to discover unambiguously the relationships among variables. The experimental method dominates research in the traditional areas of psychology—learning, perception, and physiological psychology—but it is also widely used in developmental psychology, personality, and social psychology.

实验的方法。在大多数科学中，实验是一种选择的方法，它可以使调查者明确地发现变量中的关系。实验方法支配着传统心理学领域中的研究---学习、感知，以及生理心理学---但它也广泛应用于发展心理学，个性和社会心理学中。

In its simplest form, an experiment consists of holding constant all but one of the variables presumably related to some aspect of behavior. This particular variable, referred to as the independent variable, is then systematically manipulated or changed by the experimenter according to a careful plan of procedure. The experimenter can then determine whether his manipulations of the independent variable produced any changes in the behavior he is concerned with, the dependent variable. Suppose, for example, an investigator wants to test the hypothesis that the amount of incentive (the independent variable) affects a subject’s speed of learning (the dependent variable). The investigator would control the independent variable by having different groups of subjects learn a particular task (a list of nonsense syllables, for example) under different incentive conditions. One group might be paid 25 cents for a perfect performance, another $1.00, and a THRID $3.00. The experimenter can then determine whether subjects with greater incentive learn the material more rapidly than those with less incentive.

在其最简单的形式中，实验包括了保持所有变量的恒定，但有一个变量可能与行为的某些方面有关。这种特殊的变量，被称为自变量，是由实验者根据一个详细的程序计划系统地操作和改变的。然后实验者可决定他对自变量的操作是否对他关心的行为，即自变量，产生了什么变化。例如，假定一个调查者想测试刺激（自变量）数量影响一个实验对象学习速度（因变量）的假设。调查者就会在不同刺激的条件下，通过使不同组的实验对象学习一项特定的任务（例如，一串无意义的音节）。一组实验对象可能因不错的表现获得25美分，另一组获得1美元，而第三组获得3美元。然后实验者就能决定是否刺激更大的实验对象会比那些刺激更小的实验对象更快地学习材料。

Because laboratory experiment permits the highest degree of control, it is the preferred scientific method wherever it can be used appropriately. Complex precision instruments are often included to control stimuli and to obtain exact data. However, the value of the experiment is not determined by the amount of apparatus used; good experimentation can be carried out with very simple instruments.

因为实验室的实验允许最高的控制程度，只要能适当使用，它就是更好的科学方法。复杂的精密仪器常常包括控制刺激和获得准确的数据。然而，实验的价值不是由装置使用的数量来决定的；用科学简单的仪器就能进行良好的实验。

The experimental method has some significant limitations. The major one is that there are many critical psychological issues for which the method is not appropriate or applicable. For example, a researcher interested in the effects of early parental rejection on children’s later personality problems cannot expect parents to reject their children to comply with the researcher’s experimental purposes.

实验的方法具有一些明显的局限性。主要的局限是，有许多关键的心理问题并不适合或适用于这种方法。例如，对父母早期排斥对孩子日后人格问题的影响感兴趣的研究者不能指望父母排斥他们的孩子来遵守研究者的实验目的。

Systematic Observation.  The researcher can conduct a “field” or observation study to test the effects of parental rejection, however. This would entail visiting people’s homes, observing and measuring parents’ natural interactions with their children, and assessing the children’s personality and adjustment. In this kind of study, the independent variables, such as rejection or permissiveness, are not manipulated by the investigator, but nature has, in effect, been the experimenter “manipulating” the parents’ child-rearing practices. In the field study, naturally occurring events are observed, and the relationships among these are determined. The investigator simply measures the independent and dependent variables systematically, precisely, carefully, and without bias. Motion pictures and videotapes may be of great assistance in conducting systematic observations. For example, movies of newborn infants reveal the details of their reflex activities and the types of stimuli to which the babies respond.

系统观察。不管怎样，研究者可以引导一个“领域”或观察研究来测试父母拒绝的影响。这需要拜访人们的家庭，观察和衡量父母与孩子的自然互动，并评估孩子的性格和适应能力。在这种研究中，自变量，如拒绝或放任，都不受调查者的操纵，但实际上，大自然一直是 “操纵着”父母扶养子女的实验者。在该领域的研究中，观察的是自然发生的事件，并决定着它们之间的关系。调查者仅仅是系统、准确、仔细，并且不带偏见地测量了那些自变量和因变量。电影和录像带对指导系统的观察会有很大帮助。例如，新生儿的电影展示了他们反射活动的细节和对婴儿反应的刺激类型。

Systematic observation methods are applicable to many other psychological problems, such as the influence of the mass media, including television, on behavior; the factors that foster high levels of achievement motivation; and the relative roles of heredity and environment in the development of intelligence. Thus, these methods contribute much to the science of psychology, particularly in the areas of personality, human development, social interaction, and social conflict, in which it is extremely difficult to conduct controlled experimental research. In many instances, relationships discovered by observational studies can be investigated subsequently and more precisely by experimental methods.

系统的观察方法适用于许多其它的心理问题，如大众传媒对行为的影响，包括电视；培养高水平成就动机的因素；以及遗传和环境在智力发展中的相对作用。因此，这些方法对心理学科学贡献很大，尤其在个性、人类发展、社会的相互作用以及社会冲突领域，其中要引导可控的实验研究是相当困难的。在许多情况下，由观察研究发现的那些关系可通过实验的方法进行后续的和更准确的调查。

The IMPRESSIVE advances in ethology, a variant of comparative psychology that investigates the adaptive behavior of animals in their natural habitats, attest to the value of systematic observation. Ethological research has identified stereotyped, complex action pattern in various species and the stimuli that govern these behaviors. For example, the maternal behaviors in many species are not learned but are “species-specific” (“built-in” or “instinctive’). The higher up the species is in the phylogenetic scale, the fewer the species-specific behaviors and the greater the role of learning in determining the actions used to satisfy needs. But even humans, especially infants, have some built-in, adaptive behaviors, and ethologists have begun to look at such behaviors in humans. Ethology holds a great deal of promise of making significant contributions to the science of psychology in the future.

在动物行为学中引人瞩目的进步， 一种调查动物在自然栖息地适应行为的变体，证实了系统观察的价值。行为学研究已确定了在不同物种中刻板，复杂的行为和支配这些行为的刺激物。例如，在许多物种中的母系行为并不是学来的，而是“物种-特有的”（“内置的”或“本能的”）。物种在种系发生尺度上越高，物种特有的行为就越少，并且学习在决定用来满足需求行动中的作用就越大。但即使是人类，特别是婴儿，拥有某些内置的，适应的行为，而动物行为学家已开始研究这种人类的行为。

Survey Methods. Surveys conducted by means of questionnaires and interviews are used to collect information that cannot be obtained in other ways—for example, to assess the popularity of political candidates, attitudes toward political and social issues, consumer reactions to new products, sexual practices, and many other topics. For instance, to evaluate the influence of social variables such as ethnic group membership, educational background, and economic status on voting preferences, it is necessary to collect unbiased and objective data on the voting behavior of large groups of people representing different social groups.

调查方法。通过问卷和访谈引导的调查用于收集用其它方式无法获得的信息---例如，评价政治候选人的人气，对政治和社会问题的态度，消费者对新产品的反应，性行为以及许多其它的话题。例如，评估社会变量诸如族群成员，教育背景以及经济状况对投票偏好的影响，对代表不同社会群体的大群体的投票行为收集公正和客观的数据是必要的。

Conducting valid and reliable surveys requires carefully prepared and pretested questionnaires of interview forms, trained interviewers who are familiar with these forms, and careful selection of representative groups of respondents. In addition, the methods of statistical analysis applied to the survey data must be appropriate, and the results must be reported in ways that make it possible to interpret them properly. There are many survey organizations, such as the Gallup and the Yankelovich polls, that were established specifically to conduct broad, wide-ranging surveys.

引导有效而可信的调查需要仔细地准备和预先测试访谈表格问卷，训练访谈者熟悉这些表格，并谨慎地选择受访者的代表群体。此外，用于调查数据的统计方法必须合适，而结果必须多种方式报告，这样这能准确地解释它们。有许多调查组织，如盖洛普和扬克洛维奇民意调查，是专门为引导普遍，广泛的调查而建立的。

Test Methods. Standardized tests are employed to many psychological investigations to measure various abilities, aptitudes, interest, attitude, personality characteristics, cognitive processes, and intellectual achievements. Individual differences in test scores and in way of responding to the test situation can be related to other variables. For example, variations in performance in intelligence tests or in tests of perceptual skills can be related to social variables, such as socio-economic status.

测试方法。许多心理调查都采用标准化的测试来判断各种能力、倾向、兴趣、个性特征、认知过程和智力成就。在测试分数和应对测试情景反应中个人差异可能与其它的变量有关。例如，在智力测试，或对知觉技能测试中表现的变量可能与社会变量有关，如社会—经济状况。

The preparation of an adequate test is a difficult and complex process requiring great technical skill and creativity. Items in the test must be prepared carefully, and standards or norms of performance must be established accurately. Furthermore, test scores must be shown to be reliable, or dependable (that is, individuals should perform consistently on repeated tests) and valid (the tests should actually measure what they purport to measure).

准备一项适当的测试是一个需要高超技术技能和创造力的复杂过程。必须仔细地准备测试项目，而且必须准确地建立性能的标准或规范。此外，必须证明测试分数是可靠的，或真实（换言之，在重复测试时个体应当表现一致）而且是有效的（实际上，这些测试应当测量它们声称测量的东西）。

Clinical Methods, Case Histories, and Longitudinal Studies. Clinical methods, including case histories—detailed biographies of an individual’s past history, social background, and family relationships, together with an account of present emotional problems—are most useful for the psychological study of individuals, especially for diagnosing the maladjustments of these coming to a psychologist for help. The clinical method also involve interviews; tests of intelligence, interests, and personality; and clinical observation, which involves the systematic observation of the behavior of the subject.

临床方法，病历，以及纵向研究。临床方法，包括病历---个人过去的历史，社会背景以及家庭关系的详细传记，连同对现在情绪问题的陈述---对个体心理的研究最为有用，尤其是对向心理学家寻求帮助，诊断失调的那些人。临床方法也涉及访谈；对智力、兴趣以及个性的测试；还有临床观察，它涉及对实验对象行为的系统观察。

Case histories are also valuable for systematic scientific investigations. Systematic, objective, and reliable analyses of many such histories provide excellent data for testing the relationships between developmental variables (such as child-parent relationships) and adult maladjustments. Furthermore, clinical observations and case histories may be fruitful sources of hypotheses about personality that can be tested more rigorously by experiments or systematic observations.

病历对于系统的科学调查也是有价值的。对许多这样历史的系统、客观和可靠的分析为测试发展变量（如孩子—双亲关系）与成年人的失调之间的关系提供了极好的数据。此外，临床观察和病历可能是个性假说的丰富来源，以至于可以通过实验或系统地观察进行严格的测试。

Clinical methods and case studies are often important components of longitudinal studies, in which subjects are studied and tested repeatedly over an extended period of time, often many years. These studies are especially valuable for determining whether characteristics such as intelligence, aggression, and behavior problems are stable and consistent over long periods of time or subject to fluctuation. Hypotheses about the long-term influences of early experiences on later behavior—for example, the hypothesis that early maternal rejection leads to disturbed social adjustment during adolescence—can’ be tested most adequately by means of longitudinal study. Unfortunately the longitudinal follow-up methods are expensive and time-consuming and therefore not used frequently.

临床方法和病历常常是纵向研究的重要成分，其中实验对象在持续较长的一段时期内，往往许多年，被反复地研究和测试。这些研究对于确定诸如智力、攻击性和行为问题的特征是否在很长一段时期内是稳定而连续的，或者是起伏不定的，尤其是有价值的。关于早期经历对以后行为有长期影响的假说---例如，在早期母亲排斥的假说导致了在青春期的社会调适障碍---可以通过纵向研究得到最充分的测试。

                                                     PAUL MUSSEN

                                                                       Department of Psychology and Institute of Human

                                                                         Development, University of California, Berkeley

                                                                                                             保罗·马森

                                                                                                  心理学系与人类发展研究所

                                                                                                        加利弗尼亚大学伯克利分校

                                   

                                                                                                2021年9月20日译

待续：（HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOG心理学的历史，CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOLOG当代心理学）

(译者注：该部分词条位列《大美百科全书》1985年版，第22卷，第723页至727页)