程阳：新西兰博彩业综述
Gaming in New Zealand

 以下为英文节录，【点击查看中文全文报告】 注意上图中，“毛收入”在所有游戏中是玩家输的钱！

 

INTRODUCTION

 Whatever our view of gaming,[1] it is now an integral part of New Zealand society. The industry has grown rapidly over the last decade, to the extent that it now has significant social and economic impacts.

 

Gaming is now highly visible on television, its annual turnover is in the billions and it raises hundreds of millions each year for community purposes. Most pubs and clubs have gaming machines, and casinos are substantial businesses run by prominent companies. In some respects, gaming is just another entertainment option. However, the downside of gaming is also evident in the number of people with gambling problems.

 

The gaming industry is still growing, and in ways that are increasingly difficult to regulate, yet there has never been a coherent policy framework to manage this growth. In April 1995, the Government announced a review of gaming intended to develop such a framework. In July 1996, as part of the review, the Department of Internal Affairs released a series of studies containing a wealth of information about gaming in New Zealand, and a set of policy proposals to address the diverse issues that gaming raises today.

 

This article describes the legislation that governs gaming in New Zealand, outlines the growth in gaming over the last decade, summarises some of its impacts, and reports on the progress of the review.

 

 

EXISTING GAMING LEGISLATION

 

The Legislation

 

Three key Acts regulate gaming in New Zealand - the Racing Act 1971, the Gaming and Lotteries Act 1977 and the Casino Control Act 1990.

 

The Racing Act 1971 permits fixed-odds and totalisator betting on galloping, harness and greyhound racing, and on sporting events. It grants the Totalisator Agency Board (TAB) a monopoly on most of these forms of betting. The profit from all race betting is paid to racing clubs, much of it through the Racing Industry Board (RIB). The TAB also pays some of its profits from sports betting to the racing clubs, and some to the sports concerned.

 

The Gaming and Lotteries Act 1977 permits non-commercial groups to run games of chance, instant games, prize competitions and lotteries, in order to raise funds for community purposes. This is the Act that regulates gaming machines and housie, both of which are games of chance.

 

The Act prohibits bookmaking and largely prohibits gaming for commercial gain. However, it also allows licensed promoters to promote instant games, prize competitions; and lotteries on behalf of licensed groups, and to charge up to 10% of turnover[2] as a fee. Licensed promoters may not promote games of chance other than instant games. In particular, they may not promote gaming machines or housie.

 

The Gaming and Lotteries Act also governs the New Zealand Lotteries Commission. The Commission runs Lotto, Lotto Strike, Instant Kiwi, Daily Keno and TeleBingo. It may not conduct games of chance other than instant games. Specifically, it may not run gaming machines or housie. The Commission operates like a business and pays 7% of its turnover to its retailers. However, unlike most other businesses, it pays its profit to the community. The New Zealand Lottery Grants Board distributes the Commission's profits to a wide variety of community purposes.

 

The Casino Control Act 1990 emphasises tourism, employment and economic development, rather than fundraising for community purposes. Casinos, which operate for private gain, are the first fully commercial form of gaming permitted in New Zealand.

 

The Gaming Duties Act 1971, the Goods and Services Tax Act 1985, and the Income Tax Act 1994 impose various forms of taxation on different gaming activities. The Income Tax Act also implicitly or explicitly exempts some forms of gaming from income tax.

 

 

the growth in gaming

 

 

In 1985, those who wished to gamble legally could choose from race betting, the Golden Kiwi (a paper ticket nationwide lottery that was discontinued in 1989) and a variety of small-scale forms of community gaming. By September 1996, the choices had expanded to include two casinos, almost 10,000 gaming machines on 2300 sites, race and sports betting, a range of New Zealand Lotteries Commission products (Lotto, Lotto Strike, Instant Kiwi, Daily Keno and TeleBingo) and community gaming.

 

Ten years ago, housie had by far the highest turnover of the small-scale forms of gaming, generating an amount equal to about 5% of the turnover of the two largest forms of gaming. In 1996, housie still dominates small-scale community gaming. However, its turnover is now less than 1% of the turnover of the largest forms of gaming.

 

In the 1995 participation survey (Department of Internal Affairs 1996b:9) 90% of the sample had participated in at least one gaming activity during the previous 12 months. This compared with 85% of those asked in a similar survey conducted ten years earlier. Eighty per cent of the 1995 sample had bought a Lotto ticket in the previous 12 months, 67% had bought a raffle ticket, and 58% an Instant Kiwi ticket or other scratch ticket. Three other forms of gaming had participation rates higher than 20% of those surveyed. In 1985, 71% of those asked had purchased a raffle ticket in the previous 12 months but only one other form of gaming had a participation rate higher than 20%.

 

Looking at gaming activity on a weekly basis, the 1995 survey showed (p.14) that 35% of the respondents played Lotto at least once a week. Ten per cent said they bought an Instant Kiwi ticket at least once a week, and five other types of gaming attracted weekly participation rates of between 2% and 5%. In the 1985 survey (refer Department of Internal Affairs 1996b:14), no gaming activity registered more than a 5% weekly participation rate, and only two types had a weekly rate of 2% or higher.

 

 

THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF GAMING

 

 

Gaming now directly contributes close to $600 million a year to New Zealand's GDP. Gaming duties total about $120 million a year and GST on gaming is about $85 million annually (Department of Internal Affairs 1996c:54). In short, the economic impact of gaming is significant.

 

In 1986, turnover of the major forms of gaming (race betting and the Golden Kiwi) was $934 million. In 1996/97, turnover of the largest forms of gaming - casinos, gaming machines, race and sports betting, and Lotteries Commission products - will be about $5 billion. Expenditure on the major forms of gaming was $220 million in 1986. In 1996/97, it will be about $900 million (Department of Internal Affairs 1996c:54).  (Note that expenditure has not grown as rapidly as turnover because gaming has come to be dominated by forms with a high churn factor, such as casinos and gaming machines).

 

It is harder to estimate the other economic impacts of gaming. The TAB and TAB agencies directly employ 2,500 full-time and part-time staff. The racing industry also estimates that it directly or indirectly creates full-time or part-time work for 28,000 people (New Zealand Racing Industry Board and Totalisator Agency board 1995:20-22). BERL estimates that the Lotteries Commission directly creates work for 2,700 full-time equivalent positions (FTEs) and that if indirect effects are included, the figure increases to more than 7,400 (New Zealand Lotteries Commission 1995 Appendix 6:1). The Auckland casino will employ at least 1700 FTEs, and may create as many as 5,000 jobs indirectly (Sky City Ltd 1995:3-5). The Christchurch casino has created nearly 500 FTEs (Christchurch Casinos Ltd and Aspinal NZ Ltd 1995:6).

 

 

THE SOCIAL IMPACT OF GAMING

 

Benefits

 

The most direct social benefit of gaming derives from its status as a leisure activity and as a forum for social interaction. Some forms of gaming also create jobs, and paid employment confers both social and economic benefits. The distribution of profits to the community is another visible social benefit derived from many forms of gaming. The environment in which gaming operates may influence its value as a forum for social interaction, and the type and degree of social benefit may vary from one form of gaming to another.

 

Job Creation

 

Gaming contributes to the economy through job creation. Job creation also has positive social impacts. Paid employment is a means not only of earning a living but also of fulfilling a variety of social functions. "A job is one way of participating in, and contributing to, the wider community. It is important to a person's sense of identity, independence, and self-worth. The benefits of a job reach beyond the job holder - their family and others around them gain financially, socially and emotionally." (Prime Ministerial Task Force on Employment, cited in Department of Internal Affairs 1996d:77).

 

Leisure and Social Interaction

 

Most New Zealanders gamble sometimes, but there are a wide variety of reasons why they gamble. These reasons vary from one form of gaming to another. Most people buy Lotto, Instant Kiwi or Daily Keno to win money. Winning money or prizes is an important reason for participating in all forms of gaming except buying raffle tickets. Most people buy raffle tickets to support worthy causes. People often bet on races, play gaming machines, play housie and visit casinos for excitement, as a challenge or as entertainment. Clearly, gaming has social value as a form of entertainment (Department of Internal Affairs 1996b:16).

 

Gaming also has social value as a forum for interaction. According to the new Zealand Racing Industry Board and TAB (1995:11), 51,000 people in New Zealand belong to racing clubs. Racing has traditionally been important as a setting for social interaction, particularly in rural communities. About 40% of gaming machines outside casinos operate in sports clubs, RSAs or chartered clubs. Marae and whānau groups often run housie and battens-up. Fund-raising through gaming activities often brings groups like parents and teachers together (Department of internal Affairs 1996d:76).

 

Housie is unusual. In the 1995 Department of Internal Affairs survey, almost one third of those who played housie said they did so to be with other people or to get out of the house (Department of Internal Affairs 1996b:16). A considerable portion of those who said they played housie in each of the two previous surveys (in 1985 and 1990) also gave this as an important reason for doing so (p.16).

 

Different forms of gaming appeal to different groups. Figures from the 1995 survey (see pages 53, 65 and 66) show that women are twice as likely as men to say they play housie, and that Māori are four times more likely than non-Māori to say they play housie. Those in the lowest income groups and those with no formal educational qualifications are more likely than those with higher incomes or formal qualifications to say they play housie. Men are more likely than women to say they play gaming machines. Those aged 15 to 24 years are more likely than other age groups to say they play gaming machines.

 

 

The Problem Gambler

 

While most people enjoy their participation in gaming, and do not develop problems, this is not always the case. The Department of Internal Affairs report on the social impact of gaming (see pages 105-107, 112 and 121-123) estimates that at least 12,000 adults in New Zealand currently have a serious gambling problem. Furthermore, an increase in the number of gaming opportunities tends to increase the number of problem gamblers in the community. Problem gamblers contribute to severe financial and emotional difficulties in their own lives and sometimes in the lives of other people. The general view is that every problem gambler affects between five and 10 other people (pp.107-111).

 

Problem gamblers tend to:

·           prefer continuous types of gaming (rather than forms like Lotto with a long delay between ticket purchase and prize payment)

·           prefer race betting, gaming machines or casinos, where available (these are examples of continuous types of gaming; Instant Kiwi is another example)

·           spend longer in gaming sessions

·           bet alone (rather than as part of a social gathering)

·           gamble for excitement, for a challenge or to win, rather than for entertainment

·           say gambling is beyond their control

·           gamble more frequently

·           have gambling-related debts

·           be young, male, unemployed, Pacific Islanders or Māori (rather than Pākehā / New Zealand European)

·           have higher rates of mental health problems, such as depression or alcoholism

·           have started gambling at a younger age, than most non-problem gamblers (Department of Internal Affairs 1996d:107-111).

 

Over the past two years, the Government has facilitated contributions from the major gaming industry sectors to fund the treatment and prevention of problem gambling. The Committee on Problem Gambling Management, which includes representatives of the gaming industry and treatment providers will agree annually on an amount to be paid by the gaming industry. The Committee has agreed to fund $2 million for the 1996/97 year. Parliament recently passed an amendment to the Gaming and Lotteries Act to enable collection of the gaming machine sector's share by way of an annual levy imposed on each licensed gaming machine.

 

Crime

 

In addition to the criminal activity that problem gamblers may undertake to fund their gambling, gaming appears to encourage other types of crime because it involves:

·           many transactions

·           small sums

·           cash transactions

·           large total amounts

·           undeveloped auditing systems

·           anonymous players

·           players ignorant of the regulations

·           suppliers with an information advantage

·           purchasers reliant on the honesty of suppliers

·           many opportunities for dishonesty.

 

Government tend to regulate gaming for these reasons. That said, legislation that is too restrictive may penalise some sections of the community unfairly. For example, large-scale Sunday housie sessions on marae to raise funds for the marae are illegal but may be considered legitimate by large sections of the community (Department of Internal Affairs 1996d:138-139).

 

 

the challenge for the future

 

 

The Review of Gaming materials released to date, and particularly the Department of Internal Affairs policy proposals, challenge us all to reconsider our fundamental attitudes to gaming in New Zealand. Gaming has significant social and economic impacts, and gaming applications are often at the cutting edge of new technology (with all its unknowns). Yet the legislation and policies that regulate gaming are an ad hoc mish-mash of developments that have occurred over the last century.

 

The Review represents an opportunity to look forward. The challenge is to balance the economic and social benefits of each type of gaming, and to reconcile the benefits of each type with its potential for harm. This will be a difficult process. However, the only certainty is that inaction does not mean that we stand still. The openness of New Zealand's economy, current gaming legislation and policy, and advances in technology all mean that gaming will continue growing even if we do not act. The challenge is to develop a framework to manage that growth.