程阳:美国印第安人部落博彩业法 Indian Gaming

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程阳:美国印第安人部落博彩业法
Indian Gaming
Regulation 【S】
Tribal gaming is regulated by tribal governments, Congress, the Interior Department, and the National Indian Gaming Commission, as well as by states under the terms of negotiated tribal-state gaming compacts.
Other federal agencies enforce laws affecting Indian gaming, including the U.S. Department of Justice, the IRS and the FBI.
Use of Tribal Gaming Revenues
Indian Gaming Regulatory Act requires that tribal gaming net revenues be used in five specific areas:
- To fund tribal government operations or programs.
- To provide for the general welfare of the tribe and its members.
- To promote tribal economic development.
- To donate to charitable organizations.
- To help fund operations of local government agencies providing services to tribes.
75% of all tribes devote their revenues to tribal government services, economic and community development, charitable donations and contributions to local governments.
The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988 (IGRA)
Immediately after the Cabazon ruling was handed down in 1987, tribes began operating high-stakes bingo and other gaming programs. State governments, frustrated at their lack of authority over these activities, appealed to Congress for legislation to give them more power over tribal gaming. The result was the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988 (IGRA).
Contrary to popular perception, the IGRA did not expand the power of tribal governments; in fact, it curtailed them by giving state governments unprecedented authority over tribal gaming activities. The IGRA required tribes to negotiate agreements with states in order to engage in Class III (casino-style) gaming activities.
The IGRA sets forth an economic rationale for Indian gaming on reservations. The major purpose of the Act, according to Congress, was “to provide a statutory foundation for Indian gambling operations as a means of promoting economic development, self-sufficiency and strong tribal government.”
The other purposes of the IGRA were to assure that tribal governments would be the sole owners and beneficiaries of reservation gaming programs; to establish federal regulatory authority and gaming standards; to establish the National Indian Gaming Commission; and to assure the integrity of tribal gaming.
IGRA Classifications of Tribal Gaming
The IGRA established three separate classifications of Indian gaming:
- Class I: Social gaming, such as traditional Indian games played as part of tribal ceremonies and celebrations. Tribes have exclusive authority to regulate Class I gaming.
- Class II: Bingo, pull-tabs and other similar games, including non-banking card games not prohibited by state law. Expressly excluded from Class II gaming are banking card games, such as blackjack, or slot machines of any kind. Tribes have authority to regulate Class II gaming under the jurisdiction of the National Indian Gaming Commission. Self-regulatory ordinances adopted by tribal governments must be approved by the Commission.
- Class III: All forms of gaming that are not included under Class I or Class II, such as blackjack and slot machines. Class III games are legal on tribal lands only if the games are authorized by the governing body of the tribe; the games are located in a state that permits gaming for any purpose by any person, organization or entity; and the games are conducted in conformance with a tribal-state compact entered into by the tribe and the state in which the gaming is conducted. Class III gaming compacts negotiated under the IGRA include stringent provisions ranging from application of criminal and civil laws regarding licensing and regulation of gaming, to standards for the operation of gaming activities, and financial assessments by the state to defray the costs of background investigations or other expenses associated with enforcement of the compacts.
Sovereignty as a Retained Right
Long before there was a United States of America, tribes governed themselves, provided for their people and negotiated treaties with other nations such as England, France and Spain. When tribes signed treaties with the U.S., they were guaranteed the right to continue governing themselves. This means that their sovereign rights are retained, not granted.
Tribes and the Federal Government
Throughout much of the 19th century, federal policy toward Indians and tribal governments was inconsistent. As the 1900’s approached, federal officials adopted a goal of assimilation, and initiated efforts to end the reservation and tribal government system.
Then, in a major policy change enacted between 1880 and 1930, reservations were surveyed and lands deeded to Indian and non-Indian individuals. Tribal land holdings were vastly diminished, and tribal governments were greatly weakened or eliminated. This became known as the “termination” era. Indian children were taken from their homes, moved to federal schools, and barred from using their native language or visiting their reservation homes. During this period, Indian social and economic problems skyrocketed.
The Cornerstones of Tribal Self-Government
In 1934, federal policy changed again with passage of the Indian Reorganization Act, which restored tribal lands and permitted tribes to reorganize under federal law for purposes of self-government. Since 1934, Congress has passed several other landmark statutes to strengthen tribal self-government, including:
- The Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968, which applied most of the Bill of Rights’ requirements and guarantees to Indian tribal governments.
- The Indian Self-Determination and Education Act of 1975, which strongly reaffirmed Congress’ policy that tribal governments should be permitted to control education programs, contracts and grants affecting Indians.
- The Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978, which established federal rules to ensure that Indian children removed from their homes are placed with Indian families whenever possible to preserve cultural values.
- The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988, which recognizes Indian gaming as a vehicle for achieving economic self-sufficiency on reservations, and details the authority and role of tribal governments, the federal governments and the states in Indian gaming.
- The Indian Tribal Justice Act of 1993, which reaffirmed the responsibility of the U.S. government to tribal governments, including the protection of the sovereignty of each tribal government; and confirmed that Congress, through statutes, treaties and administrative authorities, has recognized the self-determination, self-reliance and inherent sovereignty of Indian tribes.
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哥伦布发现美洲新大陆后,印第安人独特的生活方式和文化传统因白人殖民者的到来而发生巨大的变化,他们的经济状况也沦落到社会的最底层。到了20世纪70年代和80年代,美国联邦最高法院做出判决,允许印第安人在自己的保留区开设赌场,之后联邦和州政府又在博彩业方面给予印第安人部落免税待遇,使得印第安人部落的博彩业迅速发展起来,并且成为发财致富的捷径。但是,印第安人部落开设赌场也引发一些社会问题,并遇到法律上的挑战。
到2004年为止,美国有五百六十二个得到联邦承认的印第安人部落,绝大部份分散在西部几个州,例如加利福尼亚州、奥克拉荷马州以及亚利桑那州等。美国土著人一共有四百三十万,其中百分之三十六住在印第安人保留区内。保留区大小各异,有的人数达七十多万,有的还不到一百人。从地位上讲,早期印第安人既不是美国公民,也不是外国公民,而是所谓的“国内依附民族”,直接接受联邦政府的监护和管理。美国国会直到19世纪20年代才通过法律,给予印第安人美国公民的地位。从经济状况来看,随着印第安人保留区的土地和资源逐步减少,贫困问题日益严重。直到最近几十年,印第安人部落才开始通过法律渠道,争取到更多的自治权和土地拥有权。为了改善自身的经济环境,印第安人部落开设了赌场。虽然在哥伦布发现美洲新大陆之前,印第安人就有各种形式的赌博。但是,现代博彩业是到20世纪70年代才开始的。
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目前,已经有二百二十个印第安人部落在三十个不同的州开设了三百七十七个赌场。印第安人部落在康涅迪格州开设的“快活豪华赌场”是世界上最大的赌场。 【Top-10 largest
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虽然印第安人部落有权决定是否从事商业用途的赌博,但是,美国法律规定,印第安人部落要开设赌场必须经过所在州政府的批准。印第安人部落和州政府之间常常为开设赌场,特别是赌场的收益问题,发生法律争执。下面介绍两起相关的案子,这两起案子的判决,可是说为印第安人部落合法从事商业用途的博彩业打开了大门。
第一个案子发生在20世纪70年代,联邦下级法院对这个案子做出判决。这个案子说的是佛罗里达州的Seminole部落。这个部落开放“宾果”赌博,并且违反了州政府限定的赌注数额,为此和州政府发生法律争执。联邦地区法院判决说,如果赌博构成刑事犯罪,州政府可以加以阻止,但是,“宾果”赌博不构成刑事犯罪,因为佛州其它地方都可以参加这种赌博活动。判决还说,美国国会没有授权州政府调控印第安人保留区内活动的权力,所以印第安人部落可以在保留区内开设赌博设施,而且赌注数额可以由他们自己决定。这项判决做出后,印第安人部落开始加大赌注,并增加赌博游戏,因此吸引了越来越多的人到印第安人保留区来赌博,同时也使印第安人部落和州政府的关系日益紧张,法律争执也不断增多。
到了20世纪80年代,另外一起涉及印第安人部落博彩业的案子上诉到联邦最高法院,这个案子的原告是加利福尼亚州政府,被告是居住在加州南部的Cabazon印第安人部落。19世纪,白人拓荒者移居到Cabazon部落的居住地,迫使印第安人多次迁移。1876年,美国总统格兰特签署联邦法令,开辟了一千五百公顷的印第安人保留区。进入20世纪后,加州总人口迅速增长,印第安人部落的人数却急剧下跌。虽然Cabazon印第安人部落进行了多种尝试来改善自身的经济环境,例如农耕、肉类包装、手工制作等,但是收效甚微。1980年10月,Cabazon部落在保留区内开设了“沙漠绿州赌场”,实际上这是一个玩扑克牌赌博游戏的地方。虽然加州各地有四百多个类似的赌博设施,但是在印第安人保留区开设这样的赌场还是头一次。赌场开设后不久,Cabazon部落所在郡的警察对赌场进行了突然搜查。警察逮捕了一百多人,没收了大部份赌博设备,并且声称只有政府有权开设这样的赌博设施。于是,Cabazon部落向加州联邦地区法院提出诉讼,而且打赢了这场官司。加州政府不服,先后上诉联邦第九巡回上诉法院和美国联邦最高法院。Cabazon部落的律师格林·费尔德曼介绍了双方的法律争议。他说:“Cabazon部落的立场是,州法律以及地方法律都不适用于印第安人保留区,而且联邦法律也没有明文禁止他们的赌博活动,所以他们有权开设这样的赌博设施。但是,加州政府指出,州和地方有些禁止或调控这类活动的法律,对印第安人保留区还是适用的。”
这个案子在下级法院辗转了七年,终于在1986年秋季上达到美国联邦最高法院。联邦最高法院在1987年2月做出判决说,州政府干涉印第安人部落的赌场活动是非法的,因为这类活动不属于刑事犯罪的领域。判决说,加州政府无权介入并调控在印第安人保留区的赌博活动。即使加州政府有权这么做,它也应该给予印第安人部落同样的权力,因为它允许该州其它地方开设类似的赌博活动。
以上两起判决可以说为全美印第安人部落开设高额赌注的赌场打开了大门。内华达大学公共管理系教授威廉姆·汤普森分析了上面两项判决的影响。他说:“印第安人部落的赌博开始推广到全美其它州,只要有印第安人部落的地方,就有赌博,只有犹它州除外,因为赌博在这个州属于刑事犯罪活动。但是,印第安人部落要和州政府签定开设赌场的协议,比方说他们会找到加州州长阿诺·施瓦辛格说:你让我们开赌场,我们就把百分之五的利润给州政府。施瓦辛格一口答应,赌场就这么成交了。在这两个案子之前,美国没有印第安人赌场,判决之后,印第安人部落开设的赌场达到三百家左右,加起来相当于拉斯维加斯赌场收益的两倍。”
在美国联邦最高法院就Cabazon印第安人部落一案做出判决后,美国国会在1988年通过了“印第安人博彩业调控法”。这个法律试图达到三个目的。首先,促进部落经济的发展以及加强部落政府;其次,避免印第安人的博彩业成为有组织的犯罪活动;再者,建立全国印第安人博彩业委员会。这个法律还把博彩业分成三个不同的类别。第一类包括用于社交或者和印第安人部落礼仪及习俗有关的赌博活动,赌注数额是最少的,这类赌博完全由印第安人部落自己管理。第二类包括州政府准许的“宾果”、“乐透”以及扑克牌赌博。在允许这类赌博的州,印第安人部落基本上可以不受州政府的控制而自由地从事这类赌博生意。第三类是彩票或奖券赌博,要获得从事这类博彩业的资格,印第安人部落必须居住在允许从事这类赌博生意的州里,而且它不仅要得到本部落政府的正式批准,还要和州政府达成协议。
威廉姆·汤普森教授解释了印第安人部落和州政府之间是如何合作的。他说:“1988年,国会通过的‘印第安人博彩业调控法’说,如果是印第安人部落,而不是印第安人个人开设赌场,他们可以不向联邦和州政府缴税。但是,如果印第安人部落和州政府达成某种协议,他们可以自愿把博彩业的部份收益和州政府分享。由于联邦和州政府都没有强制印第安人部落必须缴税,所以印第安人部落在开设商业用途的赌场方面占据了很大的优势,因为很多非印第安人开设的赌场要把百分之二十到三十的收益用于交税。”
Cabazon印第安人部落的负责人之一马克·尼科斯认为,博彩业给印第安人部落的自身发展带来好处。他说:“我们认为,让印第安人在保留区内拥有属于他们自己的企业非常重要,这样保留区就不仅仅是被其它经济团体利用的一片土地,印第安人自己也可以从事多样化经营和进行投资,印第安人部落要保持自己的主权和独立,最终要通过这个经济战略才能做到。”
印第安人“全美博彩业协会”的执行主任厄尼·斯蒂文斯也持同样的观点。他说:“博彩业创造了就业机会,促进了经济的发展,而且为印第安人社区提供了帮助。赌场由印第安人部落自己管理意味着博彩业的收益可以用于学校、医疗保健、教育、社区基础建设等各个方面,以此造福印第安人部落。”
厄尼·斯蒂文斯还指出,印第安人通过开设赌场,在全美各地提供了三十万个直接就业机会和五十万个间接就业机会,其中很大一部份是给非印第安人的。他说,印第安人部落通过赌彩业,每年向慈善机构捐款一亿美元,同时还向联邦和州政府提供七十六亿美元的收益。斯蒂文斯说,印第安人部落还在社区关系和建设方面做出了自己的贡献。
代表Cabazon印第安人部落的律师格林·费尔德曼说,博彩业的发展改变了印第安人保留区长期以来的贫穷局面。他说:“博彩业为印第安人部落的经济发展提供了机会,这在美国两百多年的历史上还是第一次。自从1987年以来,印第安人保留区的博彩业从最初的一无所有,发展到一个可以创收一百六十亿美元收入的行业,这些收入为印第安人提供过去从来没有享受过的服务和计划。”
但是,威廉姆·汤普森教授指出,开设赌场的确可以帮助穷人,但是只有一小批人从中获利。他说:“并不是所有的印第安人都从中得到帮助的,只有一小部份印第安人得到了好处。大多数大的赌场,比如说康涅迪格州的“快活豪华赌场”,只归几百名印第安人拥有,但是全美有四百多万印第安人,其中绝大多数没有从印第安人部落开设的赌场中得到任何好处。”
除了利润分布不均衡之外,税收也是引起人们争议的问题。在允许印第安人部落从事商业用途的博彩业的州,政府中很多人感到,他们正逐步失去对印第安人部落的博彩业的控制。他们认为,不要求印第安人部落缴纳联邦和州税,给非印第安人开设赌场带来很大的冲击。目前,除了印第安人部落以外,美国有十一个州允许合法赌博。一些人士还提出,放松对博彩业的控制,有可能导致腐败和有组织的犯罪活动。有关专家统计,在开设赌场四年后的一些郡,汽车偷窃、盗窃、暴力犯罪以及破产上升百分之十。反赌博游说组织指出,赌博可以导致其它的社会问题,而且对社会结构以及传统的印第安人文化和价值观产生负面影响。