1.1   Origin of language 语言的起源

In the beginning was the word. Jesus. Language is important for human.

l         The bow-wow theory: in primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.

l         The pooh-pooh theory: in the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy.

l         The yo-he-yo theory: as primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.

One thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts.

1.2   Functions of language语言的功能

l         Jakobson (Prague school structuralists): language is above all, as any semiotic system符号系统, for communication. We study language as a science so we mention its function according to a principle. Here the function is not the social function only.

Six primary factors of any speech event: speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact.

Jakobson’s well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication: (P11)

Referential: 所指功能to convey message and information

Poetic: 诗学to indulge in language for its own sake

Emotive:感情功能 to express attitudes, feelings and emotions

Conative: 意动功能to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties)

Phatic: 交感功能to establish communion with others

Metalingual function: 元语言功能to clear up intentions, words and meanings 弄清楚意图，词语和意义，用语言了解语言本身。 We say make is a verb and he is a pronoun.

They correspond to such communication elements as context, message, addresser, addressee, contact and code.

l         Halliday’s proposes a theory of metalfunctions of language: 语言元功能理论

Ideational: 概念constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations

Interpersonal:人际 enacts/represent social relationships

Textual :语篇 creates relevance to context

1.2.1          Informative 信息 language is used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true or false.

I’ve got something to tell you. Professor Zhang has been a visiting scholar in England.

Examples from students:

1.2.2          Interpersonal function 人际 is the most important sociological use of language. People use the interpersonal function of language to establish and maintain their status in a society. In the framework of functional grammar, this function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser’s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.

Names & social relationship:

Xiao Tian, Tian sir, Mr. Tian, Lao Tian, Charles, Charles Tian,

My colleagues who are older than me.

My students in our department, this is Chinese English

My younger students because I have told them this is the right way to call me. Or foreigners call me very formally

When I was in Beijing, Chinese friends called me this way. It does not mean I am old, but it’s a casual way to call close friend.

Foreigners or the colleagues with good relation with me.

Formal, but not legal

Language use can show the relationship between different people.

“ I like your shirt. ”

The relationship can become closer by talking about the bad points of the third person.

Language marks our identity, physically in terms of age, sex, and voiceprints; psychologically in terms of language and personality, intelligence; geographically in terms of accents, dialects; ethnically and socially in terms of social stratification, class, status, role, solidarity and distance.

When Chinese people express with English, we can judge the identity of us.

The interpersonal function is such a broad category that it is often discussed under various other terms as in the following performative, emotive, expressive and phatic funtion of language. They seem to emphasize different aspects of the interpersonal function.

1.2.3          Performative 施为 is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies诅咒敌人. The kind of language employed in perfomative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.（成为礼节）

The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. For example, in Chinese when someone breads a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives.

Language can be used to do things, (Austin and Searl) to change the social status or the immediate state of affairs of people. e.g. in a wedding ceremony, the host, by uttering (一拜天地，二拜高堂，夫妻对拜，送入洞房) he can change the status of the bride and groom from lovers to couple. The same is true as in Western countries, when the priest says: “I thereby pronounce you husband and wife.” The marriage status of the couple is recognized legally.

1.2.4          Emotive function感情 is one of the most powerful uses of languae because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. It is a means of getting rid of the nervous energy when people are under stress, e.g. swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art or scenery; conventional words/phrases, e. g. God, My, Damn it.

I wish I could finished all the job of this semester!

1.2.5          Phatic [ 'fætik ]  communion交感性谈话refers to the social interaction of language.   For example:

 Mrs. P sneezes violently.  

Mrs. Q: Bless you. Gesundheit. 一百岁

Mrs. P: Thank you. Danke.

Such small, seemingly meaningless expression to maintain a comfortable relationship is used between people without involving any factual content. The phatic function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects. 俚语，玩笑，行业话，礼节性的交际，社会地域方言的转化等。

Phatic communion around us:

Hello, how are you?

Ni hao, gan sha qu?

A joke for your consideration
问候语的变迁.
邮政时代: 见信如面,此致敬礼.
电话时代: 喂, 你好! 你找谁啊?
呼机时代: 速回电话! 生日快乐!
手机时代: 你是哪位? 你打错了!
网络时代: 你是美眉还是果果?
后网络时代: 有人吗? 你是人吗

1.2.6          Recreational function娱乐性 refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling牙牙学语 or a chanter’s chanting吟唱.

相声：我去过… ….

Poems and lyrics of songs.

1.2.7          Metalingual function元语言refers to the fact that language can be used to talk about itself.

Meta-language is the language used to analyse or describe a language. For example, the sentence: in English, the phoneme /b/ is a voiced bilabial stop is in meta-language. It explains that the b-sound in English is made with vibration of the vocal cords and with the two lips stopping the air stream from the lungs.