三、 MORPHOLOGY 形态学 请结合《词汇学中的构词法》进行学习。

　　语素：语言最小的意义单位

　　语素的类型

　　复合词的类型

　　复合词的特征Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.

　　形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则， 有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支。Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.

　　语素：语言最小的意义单位。Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. （independent）

　　自由语素可以作为单词独立使用。Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.

　　粘着语素必须和其他语素结合成单词

　　Bound Morpheme includes two types: （1） root （2）Affix（词缀）

　　1）Inflectional affixes （屈折词缀）（inflectional morphemes）:

　　affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional

　　2）Derivational affixes（派生词缀） A） prefix: A prefix comes before words. B）suffix

　　An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective.

　　free=free root（自由词根）Morpheme（词素）

　　Bound root prefix

　　bound derivational

　　affix suffix

　　inflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）

　　1） Root 2） Stem

　　The differences between root and stem:

　　A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.

　　A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.

　　Individualistic Undesirables

　　Individualist （stem） undesirable （stem）

　　Individual （stem） desirable （stem）

　　dividual （stem） desire （root, stem）

　　divide（root, stem）Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem.

　　Prefixation前缀@：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.

　　1）'表示否定'nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.

　　2）''reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc.

　　3）'表示贬义'pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.

　　4）'表示程度'degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.

　　5）'表示方向、态度'orientation & attitude prefixes:counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc.

　　6）locative prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.

　　7）'表示时间、次序'time and order prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.

　　8）'表示数量'number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.

　　9）'混杂'miscellaneous prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-

　　Suffixation后缀@: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.

　　1）noun suffixes 2）adjective suffixes 3）Adverb suffixes 4）verb suffixesCompounding复合法 （also called composition）

　　Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems

　　Formation of compounds

　　Noun + noun（名词＋名词） ――― handbook, sunshine

　　Adjective + noun（形容词＋名词）―――highway, deadline

　　Adjective + noun + -ed（形容词＋名词＋ed）―――white-haired, red-eyed

　　Verb + noun（动词＋名词）―――driveway, breakwater（挡水板）

　　Adverb + noun（副词＋名词）―――downtown, overburden

　　Noun + verb（名词＋动词）―――toothpick, snowfall

　　Verb + adverb（动词＋副词）―――follow-up, kick-off

　　Noun + adjective（名词＋形容词）―――world-famous, lifelong

　　-ing form + noun（ing+名词）―――baking power, dining-room

　　other forms（其他）―――go-between, father-in-lawFeatures of compounds复合词的特征

　　1.Orthographically书写特征

　　（Compounds are written in three ways: solid（airmail） hyphenated（air-conditioning） open（air force, air raid）

　　2.Syntactically句法特征（复合词的词性一般取决于复合词最后一个成分的词性）

　　3.Semantically语义特征（复合词的意义具有习语性质，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和总和）

　　4.Phonetically语音特征（复合词的单词重音落在第一个构成成分上）

　　四、句法学

　　句子的构成

　　句子的类型

　　句子的线性排列与层次结构

　　词类

　　词组类

　　短语结构规则

　　短语结构 规则的循环性

　　X标杆理论

　　名词词组移位与WH移位

　　其他类型的移位

　　深层结构与表层结构

　　移动a规则

　　普遍语法原则

　　普遍语法参数

　　Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.

　　As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.

　　句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统。

　　Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.

　　句子通常由主语和谓语两大部分构成。 谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。

　　The referring expression is grammatically called subject. 主语是指句子中所被指称的对象。Types of sentences句子的类型

　　The simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.简单句含一个主语和一个谓语的独立句子

　　The coordinate sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction.并列句含由连接词串联起来的两个句子成分

　　The complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.

　　The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.复合句由两个或两个以上的子句组成， 其中之一为主要子句， 其余为从属子句。The liner and hierarchical structure of sentences 句子的线性排列与层次结构

　　The liner word order of a sentence: when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in sequence.句子的线性排列， 句子无论就其口头或书面表现形式看， 所含的次都按线性次序排列。（表面上的排列）The hierarchical structure of a sentence：sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase（NP）,or verb phrase （VP）, grouped together.

　　句子的结构是一种由名词词组和动词词组等句法成分单位构成的层次性结构。 Tree diagrams of sentence structure

　　S NP VP

　　V S

　　NP VP

　　V NP

　　John suggested （that）Mary take the linguistics class

　　The points at which the tree branches at various levels are called branching nodes.（分节点）Syntactic categories 句法类型

　　Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to

　　Lexical categories 词类

　　Major Lexical Categories主要词类

　　Noun（N）\ Verb（V）\Adjective（Adj）\Adverb（Adv） 名词、动词、形容词、副词

　　Minor Lexical Categories

　　Determiner（Det）\Auxiliary（Aux）\Preposition（Prep）\Pronoun（Pron）\Conjunction（Conj）\Interjection（Int）限定词、助动词、介词、代名词、连接词、感叹词Phrasal categories词组类

　　Noun phrase （NP）\Verb phrase （VP）\Prepositional phrase（PP）\Adjective phrase（AP）

　　名词短语、动词短语、介词短语、形容词短语Grammatical relations 语法关系

　　Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents called grammatical relations.

　　语法关系是指句子中名词词组与动词的关系， 其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。

　　The structural subject and the structural object结构主语与结构宾语

　　The logic subject （the doer of the action） and the logical object （the recipient of the action）

　　逻辑主语（行动的执行者）与逻辑宾语（行动的接受者）Combinational rules 组合规则

　　Phrase structure rules（rewrite rule）短语结构规则

　　短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。

　　NP-Det N （a/the man）

　　NP——Det Adj N PP S（the tall man with glasses that I met）

　　The recursiveness of Phrase structure rules 短语结构规则的循环性

　　These rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentence with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.根据短语结构规则， 短语和句子可以无限循环地组合起来。

　　X-bar theory X标杆理论

　　（X标杆理论是将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合成单一的X标杆规则的理论。）一定要结合书本！Syntactic movement and movement rules

　　移位规则

　　NP-movement and WH-movement

　　名词词组移位和WH移位