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托福阅读的能力储备--阅读基础

(2008-01-27 19:44:07)
标签:

教育

分类: 我的教学内容
 

阅读基础:

 

我们在第一讲中强调,托福阅读的复习,我们必须做好,从词汇的掌握,到句子的理解,到段落的分析,最终到全文的理解,即  词汇---句子----段落-----全文,这样一个学习/复习过程。这也是一个逐步递进、升级的过程。这些是阅读的基础,掌握好这一点,辅以托福阅读的相应做题技巧,相信高分,对所有学生来说都不是一件难事。并且更重要的是,通过这一过程,一劳永逸的形成良好的英文阅读习惯,提高英文阅读能力,为今后赴美读书,打下坚实的基础。下面,我们开始托福阅读的基本能力讲解。

 

猜词法:

我们都知道托福有词汇题,但除了词汇题之外,还会在文章中,出现一些难词,影响我们理解的,一般我们可以通过如下一下方法,帮助大家尽量解决这些难词为我们造成的理解障碍。

我们一般用到的方法有诸如通过定义的方式,如某些信号词下的直接定义,同位语,以及定于从句等,还有比如,同义、反义、因果、递进、举例等关系判断词义。

一、 定义判断词义法

某些难词、偏僻词不易被读者理解,作者常会直接给出解释或通过定义对该词直接进行解释。定义的方式有:直接定义,利用同位语等直接给出定义;使用定语从句加以阐明;用该生词的同义词来复述该词。因此,只要我们留心阅读文章,就可以很容易地得出生词的含义。

 

这是最简单的一种上下文线索,在考试当中应用最为广泛。

1.直接定义法,最常见的线索是在定义前有动词is, is called, means等。

1)      Anthropology is the study of human development and culture.

2)      Shortening a word (like bod for body) is called clipping.

3)      Empathy means feeling with anther person as if you were that person.

有时还包括信号词:that is, is defined as, namely, in other words, i.e.

 

这三个句子中划线词的定义在标识词is, is called, mean后给出。本句具体定义,可以推断出这三个词的意思分别为:人类学、截短、感情移入。

 

2.同位语定义法

4)      Hypochondria, excessive worry over one’s health, afflict many Americans over forty.

 

hypochondria同位语是excessive worry over one’s health,通过它可以判断出hypochondria的意思是“忧郁症”。

 

3. 定语从句定义法

5)      The type of meter is called multimeter, which is used to measure electricity.

 

句中的定语从句是which is used to measure electricity,用来修饰划线词,据此可以推断出该词的意思是“万用表”。

 

二、捕捉同义词或同义关系

有的作者在行文中使用了一个较为专业或生僻的词后,会在往后的叙述中使用该词的一个同义词或具有与该词有同一关系的语言表达来加深这个词在文章中的意义。这时就需要读者善于捕捉这种同义暗示,猜测出这些专业和生僻词的大体含义。请看下列句子:

 

1)  For thousands of years men have looked up at “falling stars” and wandered what they were and where they came from. Today we know that they aren’t “stars” at all, we call them meteors.

 

例子里的第一句提到的falling stars和第二句中提到的meteors为同义关系,意为“流星”。

 

三、捕捉反义词或反义关系

反义词或反义关系会给读者提供对比线索,指出要猜测的单词不会是这个反义词的含义。在英语文章中,作者有时会使用带有转折语气的信号词提示读者注意一些意义相反的词语或概念。因此,我们可以利用这些相反内容的折射,来猜测生词含义。常见的转折提示词包括:

 

SIGNAL WORDS FOR CONTRAST

Although

But

Despite

even though

However

in contrast

in spite of

Instead

Nevertheless

Not

on the contrary

on the other hand

Rather

Though

Unlike

Whereas

While

Yet

 

现举例如下:

1)      During the concert the audience was quiet, but afterward the crowd became boisterous. (boisterous的反义词出现在but前,为quiet,故该词的意思是“喧闹的”。)

2)      Although the cottage appeared derelict, we discovered that a family lived there on weekends. (discovered that a family lived there与 derelict构成反义关系,故该词的意思是“遗弃的”。)

四、因果关系判断词义法

1)      在英语文章中,我们可以根据因果关系来推测某个生词的含义。

 

常见的因果关系提示词列于下表中:

 

SIGNAL WORDS FOR CAUSE AND EFFECT

Accordingly

As

as a result

Because

because of

consequently

due to

For

for this reason

Hence

in order to

now that

owing to

seeing that

since

thanks to

Therefore

thus

 

现举例如下:

Mary felt a great apprehension as she saw two men walking towards her, gun in hand. 惊恐

 

根据原因状语从句,我们可以推断出apprehension的含义是“惊恐”。

 

五、举例判断词义法

根据作者提供的列举物或比较物之间的共性,我们可以推知生词的含义。用于比较举例的提示词见下表:

 

SIGNAL WORDS FOR EXAMPLES

Also

as an example

as an illustration

as follows

for example

for instance

for one thing

in other words

including

Like

such as

to illustrate

例如:

1)      A creed may be a system of religious beliefs, such as Buddhism, or a set of principles or opinions on any subject, such as a businessman’s creed.

 

两个such as 后面的内容是解释creed的实例,通过例子我们推断出该词的意思是“信条”;

 

六、类比判断词义法

通过对上下文中语言材料的类比也能给判断词义提供线索。常用的表示类比的提示词如下:

 

SIGNAL WORDS FOR COMPARISON

Alike

almost the same as

as if

Both

correspond to

Correspondingly

In like manner

in the same way

just as

Like

Likewise

to have…in common

 

例如:

1)      We expect the same veracity as if you were speaking under oath.

 

as if标志着其后的内容是在打比方,oath 指誓言---通过这个类比可以知道veracity的意思是“实话”。

 

七、              凭借构词法

可以通过所考词汇的词缀和词根,或复合词各个组成部分的含义来猜测生词的含义。英语中的许多词都由不同的部分构成:前缀、后缀和词根。如果知道一个词的词根和词缀的含义,一般就可以推测出词义。但是推测的前提是考生知道词根和词缀的含义,所以建议考生在平时学习中应该注意积累和掌握常用的词缀和词根。例如:

 

…The growing market for cotton and other American agricultural products led to an unprecedented expansion of agricultural settlement, mostly in the eastern half of the United States—west of the Appalachian Mountains and east of the Mississippi River.

 

The word  unprecedented  in the passage is closest in meaning to

A.      slow

B.      profitable

C.      not seen before

D.     never explained

答案:C

所考词unprecedented可以分解为un-+precedent+-ed,un-为否定前缀,-ed为后缀构成形容词,precedent为词根,而该词根又可分解为pre-+ced+-ent,pre-表示“先,前”,-ent为名词后缀,表示物,而词根ced表示“行,行走”,所以根据词缀和词根可得到这个词的意思是“先行的事物”,即“先例”。综上,所考词汇的意思是“史无前例的,空前的”,故答案为C。

 

常用词根词缀表

 

 

句子理解

接下来是句子的理解,这一部分也是整个结构阅读法的精髓所在,因为我们强调过,结构阅读法的核心即为读懂句子,因为读懂文章是建立在读懂相应的句子基础上的,而读句子,关键看句子结构,区分主谓宾等主干成分,及各种修饰限定成分!

 

关于句子的基本知识

(一)英语五大基本句型

英语句子结构的形式千差万别,但英语作为主语突出型语言,主语和谓语是必需的句子成分主语的结构形式比较划一,通常是名词或相当于名词作用的其他词、词组或从句,而谓语的结构形式则较为多样化,这种多样化决定了英语句式结构的多样化,同时也决定了不同的分句类型,即基本句型,它们是千变万化的句式结构的雏形。正是有限的分句结构的雏形及其转换形式,能够衍生出无限的实际使用中的句子。五大基本句型分别是:

主语+系动词+表语

I am fine

主语+谓语动词+(状语)

I work in a hotel

主语+谓语动词+宾语

I love you

主语+谓语动词+间接宾语+直接宾语

I give you a book

主语+谓语动词+宾语+宾语补足语

I love you my little pig.

 

(二)英语句式结构特点

英语的句子是树型结构,即树干(主句)是根本,然后在这个树干上生出若干枝叶,即利用各种关系词、介词、非谓语动词等把各种短语(名词短语、介词短语等)、附加成分(同位语、插入语等)、分句(独立成分、现在分词分句等)、从句(名词性从句、定语从句和状语从句)等构建在主句上,犹如一棵大树枝叶横生、盘根错节,十分复杂。现举例说明:

 

Whatever the enthusiasm of the English, who seemed to believe that the Prime Minister was making the long journey to do what Mr. Asquith and Sir Edward had failed to do in 1914—warn Germany that any aggression against a small power would bring not only France but Britain into war against it—Hitler realized, as the confidential German papers and subsequent events make clear, that Chamberlain’s action was a godsend to him.

                                                        William L. Shirer  The Rise and Fall the Third Reich

 

主句(树干):Hitler realized that Chamberlain’s action was a godsend to him.

第一层枝干:1. Whatever the enthusiasm of the English

                     2. as the confidential German papers and subsequent events make clear

第二层枝干:who seemed to believe

第三层枝干:that the Prime Minister was making the long journey to do

第四层枝干:what Mr. Asquith and Sir Edward had failed to do in 1914—warn Germany

第五层枝干:that any aggression against a small power would bring not only France but Britain into war against it

在这个句子中,主句充当树干的功能,是这个复杂句发展的基础,而whatever, as, who, that, what等连词或关系代词充当联结手段,将从句搭建在树干上,从而形成这个相当复杂的句子。考生在解答句子简化题时,也可以按照上例中提到的步骤来分析复杂句的结构。

 

(三)句子类型

按句子结构分,英语句子可分为简单句、并列句、复合句和并列复合句。并列句指的是包含两个或更多的独立从句的句子,各从句的意义相关或可以比较,并具有类似的重要性,或有层次的展开。复合句包含一个主句和一个或更多的从句,并用连词表明之间的关系。并列复合句是并列句和复合句的综合,要至少包含两个主句和一个从句。例如:

Anasazi houses were originally built in pits and they were entered from the roof.(并列句)

Intelligent people know these things but tend to forget them when they do not hear them expressed. (复合句)

While the men worked to strengthen the dam, the rain continued to fall; and the river, which was already well above its normal level, rose higher and higher. (并列复合句)

       建议考生了解了句子结构类型后,重点复习关于从句的知识要点,例如:如何辨别和使用主语从句、表语从句、宾语从句、同位语从句、定语从句和状语从句等。其原因是这些从句都有可能在句子简化题考查的句子中出现,理解和掌握好附属从句是解答好该题型的基础。

 

 

那么,下面我们来看,一般对大家造成理解障碍的包括哪些类型的句子呢?

第一,   专业性词汇较多,生词难词较多的句子

第二,   修饰性成份较多的句子

第三,   被一些插入语,固定短语分隔的句子

第四,   含有一些指示性代词的句子

第五,   转折句,因果句

 

 

上述这些情况有时重合出现,这就为我们造成了理解上的更大难度。下面我来向大家一一介绍破解之道!

 

第一,专业性词汇较多,生词难词较多的句子

这种情况非常常见,我问过几乎所有刚接触托福的学生,你们认为托福起步最难的是什么,几乎所有人都会说,单词量,这几乎已经成为了所有英语学习者公认的老大难,问题,因此在这里,我必须强调背单词的重要性,这是基本功,单词才是硬道理。但是不可能把所有单词都背完,因此大家的第二选择就是,通过前面所讲的猜词法去化解这个生词问题。

 

第二,   修饰性成份较多的句子

这是我必须强调的,下面我们来看一个例子。

Currently, a heated debate is under way between advocates of retaining our drug laws and their opponents, who believe that criminalization has failed and encourage adoption of a policy of decriminalization combined with an intensified emphasis on education and therapy.

我们来看一下这个句子包括几层含义,该句包括如下意思:

Currently, a heated debate is under way.

       The debate is between advocates of retaining our drug laws and their opponents.

Opponents believe that criminalization has failed.

They encourage adoption of a policy of decriminalization.

They want this policy combined with an intensified emphasis on education and therapy.

五层关系组成的句子不把你看晕才怪呢。

如何破解,看主干,看主要(第一层)关系。

我们经常说,如何让车跑得快呢?除了进行必要的改装之外呢,轻量化是最重要的,车轻自然就快了,如何?把车里的除了主驾驶座和不影响汽车正常行驶的都扔出去。车手也要减重。对于英语来说,怎样减重呢?除了主干之外的先统统不要看。确定主要关系。

 

 

Currently, a heated debate is under way.

       The debate is between advocates of retaining our drug laws and their opponents.

Opponents believe that criminalization has failed.

They encourage adoption of a policy of decriminalization.

They want this policy combined with an intensified emphasis on education and therapy.

 

 

插入语

Reports about the production of atomic fission from uranium written by famed mathematician Albert Einstein—who regarded the development of atomic warfare as a perversion of his life's efforts—alerted the U.S. government to potential military uses.

 

很明显,我们还是排掉插入语,先看主干

 

Reports about the production of atomic fission from uranium written by famed mathematician Albert Einstein alerted the U.S. government to potential military uses.

 

主干Reports alerted. government

而插入语只是对Albert Einstein的介绍,无实在意义。

 

含有指示代词的句子。

代词用来代替前文或后文中提到的名词,会对理解句子产生障碍。例如:

Although the law is often slow to catch up with changing mores (customs), it usually does catch up with them in democratic societies because the legislators change the laws to suit the voters' new goals and desires.

要正确理解这句话,首先要弄清楚代词it和them分别指代哪两个名词。前者指代的是mores (customs)还是the law?后者指代的是mores (customs)还是the law?通过仔细阅读和分析,我们不难发现it指代the law,them指代customs。知道代词的指代含义后,可以得出该句的中心意思是:the law usually does catch up with changing customs。

 

 

句间关系

一般来说,影响句子乃至全文理解的主要就是转折和因果关系,但是,都会存在相应的关系词来表明,我们在讲词汇的时候已经讲过,转折和因果的常见关系词都有哪些?我们在这里再强调一下:

转折

SIGNAL WORDS FOR CONTRAST

Although

But

Despite

even though

However

in contrast

in spite of

Instead

Nevertheless

Not

on the contrary

on the other hand

Rather

Though

Unlike

Whereas

While

Yet

 

因果

SIGNAL WORDS FOR CAUSE AND EFFECT

Accordingly

As

as a result

Because

because of

consequently

due to

For

for this reason

Hence

in order to

now that

owing to

seeing that

since

thanks to

Therefore

thus

 

我们来看例句,这也是官方样题中我们分析过的一个句子

These plants are termed opportunists because they rely on their seeds’ falling into settings where competing plants have been removed by natural processes, such as along an eroding riverbank, on landslips, or where a tree falls and creates a gap in the forest canopy.

这是一个综合了,多重修饰成份,句间关系这些难点的长难句。我们先来看这个句子的主语是the plants,谓语动词是are termed,宾语opportunists,另外一个是表示原因的从句,其中表示原因从句里面又有一个从句。处理这种题的时候,先不管这些句子在句子当中做什么样的成分,我们只要抓住第一层主从句成分就可以知道这句话的主要意思了。这句话主要讲的是这些植物被称为机会主义者,是因为他们都依赖于种子落入一定的自然环境当中。Because后面的两个where都是修饰说明是什么样一种settings,出现了such as, 举例说明了是什么样的一种环境。

 

 

对于段落理解和全文理解我们在第一讲已经讲过了,托福的文章为了掌握大意,应该如何读?我们需要在前五分钟之内,读完的就是题目,首段,点题段,每段第一句,最后一段或是最后一段的最后一句。由于托福阅读文章结构相对阶段,内容相对容易,因此,每段的第一句,一般能够较好的概括本段大意,即为本段中心句(有时中心句也会出现在段末)。如果把每段的中心句都掌握了,文章大意自然就清楚了。关键是我们如何在最短的时间内读出这些内容,所以对于词汇的掌握,句子的理解能力(结构阅读法)就显得非常重要了!

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