Originated with American linguist Noam Chomsky

4.3.1 Deep and surface structures深层结构和表层结构

Each sentence is considered to have two levels of structures.

1. deep structure（深层结构）: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.（指一个结构体的句法属性的抽象表达，即不同成分之间的关系，例如潜主语和动词，动词和宾语之间的关系的潜在层面。）
2. .surfacte structure（表层结构）: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.（结构体句法派生过程的最后阶段，与人们实际发送接收的结构组织是相符合的。）

3. Deep structure: The underlying level of structural organization displaying all the factors that govern how it should be interpreted.

4. Surface structure: The syntactic structure of a sentence we actually articulate or hear. It is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a sentence.

This distinction is used to explain the alternative interpretations of sentences which have the same surface structure but are related to different deep structures.

Flying planes can be dangerous(Planes which fly…/To fly planes…)

The shooting of the hunters was terrible.

The love of God.

He is anxious to teach.    He is eager to please.

He is difficult to teach.    He is easy to please.

This distinction is also used to relate sentences that have different surface structures but the same deep structure, as in the case of active and passive sentences.

5. p132

6. p133

7.p134

8.p134

9.e.g.

3.2 PS-rules and T-rules

How does grammar work?

Grammar operates by generating a set of abstract deep structures, and then converting these underlying representations into surface structures by applying a set of transformational rules.

①PS-rules

The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.

The phrase structure component has phrase structure rules (PS rules, rewrite rules, categorial rules) for the generation of deep structure:

S         NP + VP

VP        V + NP

NP        Det + N

Det      the, a, this, that, …

N        man, tree, …

V        hit, took, …

a.S         the  N  V  DET   N

b.S         the dog  V DET  N

c.S         the dog chased  DET  N

d.S         the dog chased the N

e.S         the dog chased the cat

②Transformational rules (T-rules)

The transformational component has transformational rules, which change the deep structures generated by the phrase structure component into surface structures.

NP1 + Aux +V + NP2 

John + will + finish + the paper.

NP2 + Aux + be +en + V + by + NP1

The paper + will + be + en + finish + by + John

3.3 The Standard Theory

Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965)

3.3.1 Why?

①ill-formed vs. well-formed sentences:

John drinks wine.

Wine drinks John.

②Passive forms:

John married Mary.

Mary was married by John.

John resembles his father.

His father was resembled by John.