6.2.4 Semantics and sentence memroy 语义学和句子记忆
assimilation theory同化理论------: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.
6.2.5 Basic processes in reading 阅读的基础过程
1. Eye movement 眼部移动
2. The perceptual span 感知时距------which is the range of letters from which useful information is extracted. 即能够提取到有用信息的字母范围。
3. The immediacy assumption 即时假定
immediate assumption即时假定:------- the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.读者应该每遇到一个单词就马上展开所需过程来理解该单词及它与句中之前单词的关系。
e.g. Tomorrow was the annual, one-day fishing context and fisherment would invade the place. Some of the best bass guitaristis in the country would come to this spot.明天是纪念日，有一天的捕鱼竞赛，渔夫们将拥入此地。乡村里一些最好的低音吉他演奏者也将到场。
Bass (颅鱼；音调低的)
6.3 Discourse/ text interpretations话语/语篇解释
1. Discourse serves as a context, affecting sentence and word-level interpretation, tipping the interpretation of what would otherwise be ambiguous words or phrases in a certain direction.话语作为语境，影响句子和词平面的解释，给可能有歧义的词或短语指示一个确定的解释方向。
2. context effect语境效应-----: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.
3. When we are trying to understand a sentence, we often make use of information that is not contained directly within the sentence itself. This is known as contextual information, and we can distinguish between two kinds of context: general and specific.人们尝试理解句子时，经常会利用一些句子本身并不直接包含的信息，叫做语境信息；我们可以区分两种语境：常识的和特殊的。
General context effects occur when our general knowledge about the world influences language comprehension. 常识语境效应发生在我们对世界的常识影响语言理解时；
Specific context effects involve information obtained from earlier parts of a discourse.特殊语境效应则需要甬道从话语前面部分获取的信息。
4. General context effects occur all the time, because a crucial aspect of language comprehension involves making use of any relevant general knowledge that we possess.常识语境效应随时都在发生，因为语言理解的一个极重要的方面就是要利用我们拥有的任何相关常识。
6.3.1 Schemata and inference drawing 图式和推论
1. schemata in text语篇图式: packets of stored knowledge in language processing存储知识的信息包
2. The features of schemata are as follows:
(1). Schemata can vary considerably in the information they contain, from the very simple to the very complex.图式可以随其存储信息发生相当大的改变，从非常简单到非常复杂。
(2). Schemata are frequently organized hierarchically; for example, in addition to a rather general restaurant schema orscript, we probably also have more specific restaurant schemata for different kinds of restaurant(e.g. fast-food places, up-market French restaurants, and so so.) 图式往往是分等级地组织起来的：如，在很普通的餐馆图式或底本之外，我们可能也有不同种类的特殊餐馆图式（像快餐店，高档法国餐馆等等。）
(3). Schemata operate in a top-down or conceptually dirven way to facilitate interpretation of environmental stimuli..图式以一种自上而下或概念驱动的方式促进对环境刺激物的解释。
3. inference in context语篇推论: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.
6.3.2 story structure 故事结构
story structure故事结构-------: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized
macroproposition:宏观命题---general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.
macrostructure 宏观结构
6.4 Language production 语言产生
1. Language production is very definitely a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information, and so on.人们说话或者写文章是为了交朋友、影响别人、传递信息等等，在这个意义上，语言产生无疑是一种目标驱动的活动。
2. The two forms of language production are speech production and writing.语言产生的两种形式：言语产生和文字。
6.4.1 Speech production 言语产生
1. five different levels of representation involved in speaking a sentence, and they occur in the following sequence: the message-level representation; the functional-level representation; the positional-level representation; the phonetic-level representation; the articulatory-level representation五个不同的表达层面：信息层面表达式；功能层面表达式；命题层面表达式；语音层面表达式；发音层面表达式。
2. propositions命题:-----whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.
3. parsing解析------:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.
4. The classic error of this type is the spoonerism (or slip of the tongue), where the initial letter or letters of two words are transposed.属于这种类型的典型错误是首音互换（或叫“舌头打滑”）：两个单词的前个或前几个字母互换了位置。
5. Other errors also demonstrate the existence of forward planning. An anticipation error occurs when a word is spoken earlier in the sentence than it should be (e.g. the school is at school). A similar type of error is the exchange error, in which two items within a sentence are swapped. (e.g. This is the happiest life of my day.)其他错误也说明了“预先计划”的存在。当一个单词先于它应该出现的位置出现在句中时，预期错误就产生了。一种相似的错误类型是交换错误，即句中两个词项交换了位置。
6. Given this sequence, it would be possible for the grammatical structure of a spoken sentence to be correct even though some of the words were incorrectly positioned. Precisely this is found withmorpheme-exchange errors, in which the roots or basic forms of two words are switched leaving the grammatical structure unchanged. (e.g. He has already trunked two packs.)说出的句子语法结构正确而一些词位置错误。这一现象准确地说是词素交换错误，其中语法结构没变而两个单词的词根或基础形式交换了位置。（例如，trunk与pack互换了位置。）
6.4.2 Written language 书面语
1. writing process书面语过程: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.
2. According to Hayes and Flower , writing essentially consisits of three inter-related processes: the planning process; the sentence generation process; the revison process.文字处理本质上由三个相互关联的过程组成：计划过程；句子生成过程；修改过程。
3. In general, the processes operate in the order: planning, sentence generation, and revision.这些过程按如下顺序工作：计划，句子生成，修改。
4. Strategic knowledge学习策略知识------which is knowledge of the metods used in constructing a writing plan in order to make it coherhent and well-organized. 它是关于构建写作计划所用方法的知识，使用那些方法可以使写作计划更加连贯，富于组织性。
4. Knowledge-telling strategy知识讲述策略------where they simply wirte down everything they can think of that is relevant to a topic without organizing the information in any way.即不用任何方式组织信息，只是写出所有能想到的与主题相关的东西。
5. Knowledge-transforming strategy 知识转换策略
Exercises:
Here are some more examples of garden path sentence. Can you figure out what the structure of these sentences is ?下面是一些“花园小径”句，请指出其结构。
1. The boat floated downstream sank. The boat/ which was floated downstream / sank.那只顺流而下的船沉了。
2. While Mary was mending the sock fell off her lap. While Mary was mending / the sock fell off her lap. 玛丽正在缝补时，短袜从她膝盖上滑了下来。
3. The daughter of the king’s son admires himself. (The daughter of the king)’s son admires himself.国王女儿的儿子崇拜他自己。
4. The florist sent the flowers was pleased. The florist / whom was sent the flowers /was pleased.收到鲜花的种花人非常高兴。
5. The cotton cloting is made from grows in Mississippi. The cotton /which clothing is made from / grows in Mississippi.纺织用棉产于密西西比。
6. They told the boy that the girl met the story. They told the boy / that the girl met/ the story. 他们把故事告诉了女孩遇到的那个男孩。
The examples of cohort theory:
Gray tie------ great eye; a name-----an aim; an ice man-----a nice man; I scream-----ice cream;
See Mable----seem able; well fare----welfare lookout------look out ; decade-----Deck Eight
Layman------laymen; persistent turn------persist and turn