5.3 Major Sense relations 涵义关系
Words are in different sense relations with each other
There are generally 3 kinds of sense relations: sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation 一般来说有三种公认的涵义关系：即相同关系，对立关系和内包关系。
5.3.1. synonymy 同义关系
1. Sameness or close similarity of meaning.
Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.同义关系：相同关系的专业术语
synonymy同义词----synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words that are close in meaning. 指意义相同或相近的词。
2. What is synonymy?
“Synonymy” is used to mean sameness or close similarity of meaning. Dictionary makers (lexicographers) rely on the existence of synonymy for their definitions. Some semanticians maintain, however, that there are no real synonyms, because two or more words named synonyms are expected without exception to differ from one another in one of the following aspects: In shades of meaning (e.g., finish, complete, close, conclude, terminate, finalize, end, etc.); In stylistic meaning; In emotive meaning (or affective meaning); In range of use (or collocative meaning); In British and American English usages [e.g., autumn (BrE), fall (AmE)]. Simeon Potter said,“ Language is like dress. We vary our dress to suit the occasion. We do not appear at a friend’s silver-wedding anniversary in gardening clothes, nor do we go punting on the river in a dinner-jacket.” This means the learning of synonyms is important to anyone that wishes to use his language freely and well.
3. what are the major types of synonyms in English?
Complete synonyms绝对同义词------synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstantces, are rare.
According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups:
(1) Dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional dialects 地域性同义词：在不同的地域方言中所用的同义词
These are words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varienties of the English language. Examples:
Britain English: autuman lift luggage lorry petorl flat windscreen torch railway
American English: fall elevator baggage truck gasoline apartment windshield flashlight railroad
Girl—lass/ lassie; liquor/whiskey
(2) stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style文体同义词：用于不同文体的同义词
Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality. In other words, some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style. Examples:
Old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent; start, begin, commence; kid, child, offspring; chap, pal, friend, companion; room, chamber; kick the bucket, pop off; die, pass away, decease;
(3) emotive synonyms----synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning 感性同义词：在感性或评价方面不同的同义词
These are words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicatiing the attitudes or bias of the user toward what he is talking about. 这些词的意义相同，但表达了使用者不同的感情，表明了使用者对他所谈论事情的态度。
Examples:
a. “collaborator” and “accomplice” are synonymous in that they share the meaning of “a person who helps another”, but they differ in that at collaborator helps another in doing something good, while an accomplice helps another in a criminal act.
b. economical, frugal , thrifty, mean, miserly, stingy
He has been a very thrifty person all his life. Don’t you expect a loan from such a miserly man.
c. like , love, admire, adore, worship
He is a nice man and all the pupils like him. The pop singer is especially worshipped by teengers.
(4) Collocational synonyms-----some synonyms differ in their collocation. 搭配区别上的同义词：在搭配上有区别的同义词
i.e. in the words they to together with . this is a matter of usage when we want to say that someone has done something wrong or even criminal, we can use
examples: a. accuse…of; charge…with; rebuke…for
b. the word we use to describe food that has gone bad and is not fit for eating:
rotten tomatoes, addled eggs, rancid bacon/butter, sour milk
(5) semantic synonyms----semantically different synonyms 语义上有差异的同义词
These are synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean.
Examples : a. the two words “amaze” and “astound”are very close in meaning to the word “surprise”, but they have subtle differences .”Amaze” suggest confusion and bewilderment, “astound”suggests difficulty in believing. Amaze：表示的是一种困惑，不解； astound：表示的是难以置信的情感。
b. “escape ” and “flee” both mean “to get away”
escape: means to get away from something unpleasant or dangerous;
flee: means to get away hurriedly
5.3.2 Antonymy 反义关系
Oppositeness of meaning
Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.
Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions.
What is Antonymy? How many kinds of antonyms are there?
antonymy反义词------The term “antonymy” is used for oppositions of meaning; words that stand opposite in meaning are called “antonyms”, or opposites反义词是指那些在意义上既相互对立又相互联系的词。
Antonymy fall in there categories 1) gradable antonyms (e.g, good-bad); (2) complementary antonyms (e.g., single-married); (3) relational antonyms (e.g., buy-sell).
①Gradable antonymy (mainly adj.)等级反义关系------member of this kind are gradable. Some antonyms are gradable because they are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, so it is a matter of degree.两个意义形成对立的等级，但在两级之间呈现着一定的梯度关系。
good/ bad(so-so/average) long /short, narrow/ wide big/small; fat/ thin; hot/cold( cool, warm , luke warm); old/young( middle-aged, mature, elderly)
They are gradable. That is, the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. There are often intermediate forms between them.
②complentary antonymy:互补反义关系------- members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,成员彼此互补
alive/ dead, male/ female, present/ absent, pass/ fail , boy/ girl up/down married/single innocent/guilty odd/even hit/miss
It is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.
In other words, it is not a matter of degree between two extremes, but a matter of either one or the other.中间不存在过渡性
③.relational opposites关系反义词/相关对立反义词 ----pairs of words that the exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relationship opposites.不仅意义相反，都有一种语义上相互依存的挂你。一般大多涉及社会关系和空间关系。
Lend/borrow; give/receive; host/guest; before/after; above/below; right/left; employee/employer; parent/child; wife/husband; give/take; father/daughter;
:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.关系对立：反向反义关系典型地表现在相互社会角色亲属关系，时间和空间等方面，它总是涉及两个实体，一个预设了另一个。
Converse antonymy (relational opposites)
converse antonymy反向反义关系-------: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.反义关系的一种特殊类型，因为对中成员并不一定构成肯定否定的对立。
buy/ sell, lend/ borrow, before /after, teacher/ student, above /below
The members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities.
5.3 .3 Hyponymy ( a matter of class membership)上下义关系：一种类和成员之间的关系
the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific words .
cow/ animal, rose/ flower, honesty/ virtue
1. hyponymy:----- a relation between two words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym).
2. Superordinate上坐标词: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms. These members of the same class are co-hyponyms. Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,the word which is more general in meaning.位于上下义关系上位的词语，即类名。一个上坐标词通常有很多下义词。同类中的成员叫做同下义词。
3. hyponyms下义词------the lower terms in hyponymy居于下位的是成员，叫做下义词。
The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific word are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same super-ordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.
4. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy” and “hyponymy”.
“Polysemy”多义词----- refers to the semantic phenomenon that a word may have than one meaning.
Polysemy refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning; the same oen word may have more than one meaning, such a word is called a polysemic word.多义词是指一个词具有两个或两个以上的一样。在英语中一词多义是普遍的，而一词单义则是极少数的。
Examples.: (1) “negative” a: a statement saying or meaning “no”; b: a refusal or denial; c: one of the following words and expressions:no, not, nothing, never, not at all, etc. d: a negative photograph or film
But we can sometimes hardly tell if a form has several meanings or it is a different word taking this form; hence the difference between polysemy and homonymy.
Homonymy同形异义------Homonymy refers to words are identical in form either sound or spelling, or in both, but different in meaning.同形异义指两个或两个以上的词同形或同音但不同义的现象。
Homophones------two words are idential in sound. 同音 rain/reign; night/knight; piece/peace; leak/leek; dear/deer
Homographs-------two words are indential in spelling. 同形 bow(v)/bow(n); tear(v)/tear(n) ; lead(v)/lead(n);
bank(a financial institution)/ bank(side of a river)
Complete homonyms-----two words are indentical in both sound and spelling. Fast(adj)/fast(v); scale(n)/scale(v)
Hyponymy上下义关系------refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.上下义关系实际是指两词意义之间的关系分别表示的是逻辑上的属的概念与种的概念。
Examples: superordinate: furniture
Hyponyms : bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, setee,……
Auto-hyponym:自我下义词
5．What is hyponymy? What is a hyponym? What is superordinate?
“Hyponymy” involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion. It is a matter of class membership. That is to say, when X id a kind of Y, the lower term X is the “hyponym”, and the upper term Y is the “superordinate”. Two or more hyponyms sharing the same one superordinate are called “co-hyponyms”. For example, “flower” is the superordinate of “tulip”, “violet” and “rose”, which are the co-hyponyms of “flower”.