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Chapter3
(2006-08-14 21:57:26)| 分类： 语言 |
第三章
Teaching aims: let the students have a brief knowledge about morphemes and the basic word-formation methods
Focal points: definition and classification of morphemes; major word-formation methods
Teaching procedure
Lexicon：In its most general sense, lexicon is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, it deals with the analysis and creation of words.
Word
3.1 What is word
Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.词是个表达单位，不管是在口语还是在书面语中，说母语的人对词有种普遍的直觉识别能力。
3.1.1 Three senses of “word”“词”的三种含义
a. a physical definable unit: 是自然的有界限单位
word may be seen as a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks. 词可以看作是两个间隔或空白之间的音段成分或字母的组合群。
b. the common factor underlying a set of forms 是支配一组形式的共同因素。
Word is the common factor underlying a set of forms, a unit of vocabulary, a lexical item, or a lexeme. 词是在一组形式之下的共同要素，是词汇的单位，是一个词条，或是一个词位。
lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.
lexeme(词位):A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)
Lexeme-----is postulated as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts.词位被假定为语言词汇系统中潜在于最小单位之下的抽象单位，而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的。
e. g. boy boys; check, checks , checking, checked; write, writes, wrote, writing, written; fat, fatter, fattest
boy, check, write, and fat are the lexemes.
c. a grammatical unit 是一个语法单位。
e.g. It is kind of you ,Miss Hou.
Every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence.
3.1.2 Identification of words词的识别
1. stability 稳定性
Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, that is, the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierachy.But it is all right for us to rearrange the constituents in a sentence to a certain degree . 所有语言单位中词是最稳定的，就其内部结构来说，跟句子层面成分相对的位置灵活性相比，复合词的组成成分一般不能重新调整次序。但是句子成分却可以做一定程度的重新排列。
e.g. The chairman looked at the audience. 主席看观众
The audience loooked at the chairman. 观众看主席。
2. Relative uninterruptibility 相对的连续性
By uninterruptibility, we mean new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nor is allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word. 连续性，是指即使一个词由几个部分构成，新的成分也不能插进词的中间。各部分之间也不允许有停顿。
3. A minimum free form 最小的自由形式
It was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. H eadvocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word” the minimum free form”, word being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance. 由布龙菲尔德首先提出来。他提倡把句子看作“最大的自由形式”，把词看作“最小的自由形式”。词是能独立构成一个完整语句的最小的单位。
3.1.3 Classification of words 词的分类
a. Variable vs. invariable words 可变化词和不变词
Words can be classfied according to their variability. 根据可变性可以对词进行分类。
In variable words----- one could find ordered and regular series of gramartically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. Thus , each ordered series constitutes paradigm. 关于可变化词，人们可以找到一系列整齐而有规则的词形，它们在语法上是不同的；另一方面，词的一部分相对保持不变。因此每一个整齐的系列构成一个集合。
Invariable words------refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings. 不变词指since,when, seldom, through, hello这一类词。它们没有形态结尾。
b. Grammatical words vs. lexical words 语法词和词汇词
In terms of the meaning expressed by words, they can be classified into Grammatical words vs. lexical words.就表达的意义来说，词可以分为语法词和词汇词。
Grammatical words/ function words------those which express grammatical meanings, such as , conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words. (表达语法意义的是语法词,如连词,介词,冠词,代词.)
Lexical words/ content words--------those which have lexical meanings, that is , those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, re lexical words. (具有词汇意义指物质,动作和性质的是词汇词,如名词,动词,形容词,副词.)
As the lexical words carry the main content of a language while the grammatical ones serve to link its different parts together, the lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical ones function words. 词汇词承载了语言的主要内容，而语法词是用来把不同的片段连接在一起的，所以词汇词又叫做实义词，语法词又叫做功能词。
c. Closed-class words vs. open-class words封闭类词和开放类词
The distinction of grammatical words and lexical words leads to distinction of “colsed-class” words and “open-class” words.语法词和词汇词的区别导致了封闭词类和开放词类的区别。
Closed-class word(封闭词类):------ a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. .(封闭词类的成员数目是确定的,有限的.新成员不会有规律地增加.例如代词,介词,连词,冠词等.)
open-class word(开放类词):------- a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.(开放类词的成员数目原则上是无穷的,无限的.例如名词,动词,形容词和多数副词.)
d. Word class 词类
Classify words either by analyzing the various grammatical, semantic, and phonological properites of the words in language, or by grouping them into classes on the basis of formal similarities in PART OF SPEECH in traditional grammar.要划分词类，更现实的方法是分析词在语言中的不同的语法特征，语义特征和音系特征，或者根据形态变化和分布方面的形式相似形来给词分组。在传统语法中词类part of speech是封闭的。
Particles 、Auxiliaries、 Pro-form 、Determiners 助词，助动词、代词形式、限定词
3.2The formation of word 词的形成
3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology 语素和形态学
The smallest components are known as morphemes. But they themselves cannot further analyzed. 最小的成分叫语素。但是语素本身不能再作进一步分析。
Morpheme---- is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. (就表达和内容之间的关系看,语素是最小的语言单位,不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇一样或语法意义.)
Morphology---- is the immediate concern of a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.直接涉及语素研究的语言学分支叫做形态学，研究词的内部结构以及词的构造规则。
The two fields (p88)
Inflectional morphology: the study of inflections
Derivational morphology: the study of word-formation
Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning Morpheme is the smallest meaning-bearing unit.
2. compound(复合词): polymorphemic words(多语素词) which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as paymaster,moonwalk,babysist,godfather,sunflower,classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.(组成成分都是自由语素的多语素词.)
15. 17. blending(混成法): a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.(混成法是一种相对复杂的混合形式,由两个单词混合而成,一般是把第一个单词的开头部分和第二个单词的最后部分连接起来,或者是把两个单词的开头部分连接起来.)
18. loanword(借词): a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.(借词的形式和意义都是借用的,有时为了适应新语言的音位系统,可以有些细小的改变.)
19.loanblend(混合借词): a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.(指借词的一部分来自本国语,另一部分来自外来语,但是意义全都是借来的.)
20. loanshift(转移借词): a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.(转移借词的意义是借用的,但是形式是来自本国语.)
21. Loan translation(翻译借词): a special type of borrowing, in which each morphemeor word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.(翻译借词是一种特殊的借用,每个语素或单词都是从另一种语言中的语素或单词对等地翻译过来的.)
22.acronym(缩略词): is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.(缩略词是由组织机构名称的首字母构成的,而这个组织机构的名称有多重修饰语.)
23.loss(脱落):the loss of sound can first reter to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system.(语音脱落首先可以指音位系统中作为音位的某个语音的消失.)
24. back-formation(逆构词法): an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.(构词法中一种不规则的类型,即把一个语言中已经存在的较长单词删去想象中的词缀,由此造出一个较短的单词.)
25.assimilation(同化作用): the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called ”contact”or ”contiguous” assimilation.(指由于邻近语音的影响而产生的语音变化,更明确的叫法是”接触同化” 或 “邻近同化.”)
26.dissimilation(异化作用): the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.(指一个音段影响了另一个音段的清晰度,以致语音变得不太相似或不同.)
27.folk etymology(俗词源): a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.(指词或短语的形式由于对词源的错误而又普遍的解释或对词义的错误理解,或者由于受到更熟悉的词汇的影响而进行错误的类推,导致了新的意义的产生.)
Teaching aims: let the students have a brief knowledge about morphemes and the basic word-formation methods
Focal points: definition and classification of morphemes; major word-formation methods
Teaching procedure
Lexicon：In its most general sense, lexicon is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, it deals with the analysis and creation of words.
Word
3.1 What is word
Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.词是个表达单位，不管是在口语还是在书面语中，说母语的人对词有种普遍的直觉识别能力。
3.1.1 Three senses of “word”“词”的三种含义
a. a physical definable unit: 是自然的有界限单位
word may be seen as a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks. 词可以看作是两个间隔或空白之间的音段成分或字母的组合群。
b. the common factor underlying a set of forms 是支配一组形式的共同因素。
Word is the common factor underlying a set of forms, a unit of vocabulary, a lexical item, or a lexeme. 词是在一组形式之下的共同要素，是词汇的单位，是一个词条，或是一个词位。
lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.
lexeme(词位):A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)
Lexeme-----is postulated as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts.词位被假定为语言词汇系统中潜在于最小单位之下的抽象单位，而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的。
e. g. boy boys; check, checks , checking, checked; write, writes, wrote, writing, written; fat, fatter, fattest
boy, check, write, and fat are the lexemes.
c. a grammatical unit 是一个语法单位。
e.g. It is kind of you ,Miss Hou.
Every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence.
3.1.2 Identification of words词的识别
1. stability 稳定性
Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, that is, the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierachy.But it is all right for us to rearrange the constituents in a sentence to a certain degree . 所有语言单位中词是最稳定的，就其内部结构来说，跟句子层面成分相对的位置灵活性相比，复合词的组成成分一般不能重新调整次序。但是句子成分却可以做一定程度的重新排列。
e.g. The chairman looked at the audience. 主席看观众
The audience loooked at the chairman. 观众看主席。
2. Relative uninterruptibility 相对的连续性
By uninterruptibility, we mean new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nor is allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word. 连续性，是指即使一个词由几个部分构成，新的成分也不能插进词的中间。各部分之间也不允许有停顿。
3. A minimum free form 最小的自由形式
It was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. H eadvocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word” the minimum free form”, word being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance. 由布龙菲尔德首先提出来。他提倡把句子看作“最大的自由形式”，把词看作“最小的自由形式”。词是能独立构成一个完整语句的最小的单位。
3.1.3 Classification of words 词的分类
a. Variable vs. invariable words 可变化词和不变词
Words can be classfied according to their variability. 根据可变性可以对词进行分类。
In variable words----- one could find ordered and regular series of gramartically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. Thus , each ordered series constitutes paradigm. 关于可变化词，人们可以找到一系列整齐而有规则的词形，它们在语法上是不同的；另一方面，词的一部分相对保持不变。因此每一个整齐的系列构成一个集合。
Invariable words------refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings. 不变词指since,when, seldom, through, hello这一类词。它们没有形态结尾。
b. Grammatical words vs. lexical words 语法词和词汇词
In terms of the meaning expressed by words, they can be classified into Grammatical words vs. lexical words.就表达的意义来说，词可以分为语法词和词汇词。
Grammatical words/ function words------those which express grammatical meanings, such as , conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words. (表达语法意义的是语法词,如连词,介词,冠词,代词.)
Lexical words/ content words--------those which have lexical meanings, that is , those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, re lexical words. (具有词汇意义指物质,动作和性质的是词汇词,如名词,动词,形容词,副词.)
As the lexical words carry the main content of a language while the grammatical ones serve to link its different parts together, the lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical ones function words. 词汇词承载了语言的主要内容，而语法词是用来把不同的片段连接在一起的，所以词汇词又叫做实义词，语法词又叫做功能词。
c. Closed-class words vs. open-class words封闭类词和开放类词
The distinction of grammatical words and lexical words leads to distinction of “colsed-class” words and “open-class” words.语法词和词汇词的区别导致了封闭词类和开放词类的区别。
Closed-class word(封闭词类):------ a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. .(封闭词类的成员数目是确定的,有限的.新成员不会有规律地增加.例如代词,介词,连词,冠词等.)
open-class word(开放类词):------- a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.(开放类词的成员数目原则上是无穷的,无限的.例如名词,动词,形容词和多数副词.)
d. Word class 词类
Classify words either by analyzing the various grammatical, semantic, and phonological properites of the words in language, or by grouping them into classes on the basis of formal similarities in PART OF SPEECH in traditional grammar.要划分词类，更现实的方法是分析词在语言中的不同的语法特征，语义特征和音系特征，或者根据形态变化和分布方面的形式相似形来给词分组。在传统语法中词类part of speech是封闭的。
Particles 、Auxiliaries、 Pro-form 、Determiners 助词，助动词、代词形式、限定词
3.2The formation of word 词的形成
3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology 语素和形态学
The smallest components are known as morphemes. But they themselves cannot further analyzed. 最小的成分叫语素。但是语素本身不能再作进一步分析。
Morpheme---- is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. (就表达和内容之间的关系看,语素是最小的语言单位,不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇一样或语法意义.)
Morphology---- is the immediate concern of a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.直接涉及语素研究的语言学分支叫做形态学，研究词的内部结构以及词的构造规则。
The two fields (p88)
Inflectional morphology: the study of inflections
Derivational morphology: the study of word-formation
Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning Morpheme is the smallest meaning-bearing unit.
2. compound(复合词): polymorphemic words(多语素词) which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as paymaster,moonwalk,babysist,godfather,sunflower,classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.(组成成分都是自由语素的多语素词.)
15. 17. blending(混成法): a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.(混成法是一种相对复杂的混合形式,由两个单词混合而成,一般是把第一个单词的开头部分和第二个单词的最后部分连接起来,或者是把两个单词的开头部分连接起来.)
18. loanword(借词): a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.(借词的形式和意义都是借用的,有时为了适应新语言的音位系统,可以有些细小的改变.)
19.loanblend(混合借词): a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.(指借词的一部分来自本国语,另一部分来自外来语,但是意义全都是借来的.)
20. loanshift(转移借词): a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.(转移借词的意义是借用的,但是形式是来自本国语.)
21. Loan translation(翻译借词): a special type of borrowing, in which each morphemeor word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.(翻译借词是一种特殊的借用,每个语素或单词都是从另一种语言中的语素或单词对等地翻译过来的.)
22.acronym(缩略词): is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.(缩略词是由组织机构名称的首字母构成的,而这个组织机构的名称有多重修饰语.)
23.loss(脱落):the loss of sound can first reter to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system.(语音脱落首先可以指音位系统中作为音位的某个语音的消失.)
24. back-formation(逆构词法): an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.(构词法中一种不规则的类型,即把一个语言中已经存在的较长单词删去想象中的词缀,由此造出一个较短的单词.)
25.assimilation(同化作用): the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called ”contact”or ”contiguous” assimilation.(指由于邻近语音的影响而产生的语音变化,更明确的叫法是”接触同化” 或 “邻近同化.”)
26.dissimilation(异化作用): the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.(指一个音段影响了另一个音段的清晰度,以致语音变得不太相似或不同.)
27.folk etymology(俗词源): a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.(指词或短语的形式由于对词源的错误而又普遍的解释或对词义的错误理解,或者由于受到更熟悉的词汇的影响而进行错误的类推,导致了新的意义的产生.)
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