Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ①It studies not any particular language, but a language in general.②it is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of language structure.

 

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication

The design features of language 语言的甄别特征are 1) arbitrariness 武断性2) productivity 创造性3) duality 二重性4) displacement移位性5) cultural transmission 文化传递性

 

Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. In a word syntax studies the sentence structure of language.

 

Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning from a linguistics point of view. Many varieties of views concerning the study of meaning disappeared during the history, including The naming theory, The conceptualist view, Contextualism and Behaviorism.

 

Pragmatics can be defined in various ways. A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatics studies such topic as related to language communication.

 

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American linguist Sapir and Whorf. This hypothesis states that the ways people think and behave is influenced wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. That is to say, different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently.

Interlanguage: is established as learners’ independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language.

 

Cross-cultural communication is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event. It is frequently used to refer to communication between people from different cultures, which implies a comparison between cultures.

 

Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression_r of quantitative relationships.

 

Language acquisition device was described as an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the human brain. The “black box” is said to contain the principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need samples of a natural language to activate使活动起来，使开始起作用the LAD, which enables them to discover his language structure by matching the innate 天生的knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language.

 

Universal Grammar(UG): Chomsky prefers the innate天生的endowment that existing somewhere in the human brain and containing the principles that are universal to all human languages as Universal Grammar(UG). Chomsky holds that if children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is to learn is the ways in which their own language makes use of these principles which may exist in the particular language they are learning.

 

Critical period hypothesis was preferred by a biologist, Eric Lennerberg. He argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, work successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition—which is referred to as the Critical Period Hypothesis.

 

Second language acquisition(SLA), formally established itself as a discipline around the 1970s, refer to the systematic study of how one person acquire a second language subsequent to his native language. Here the “second” language is not opposite to “foreign” language.

 

①    According to the Input Hypothesis, Krashen assumed there are two independent means or routes of second language learning acquisition and learning.

②    Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language, it is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners can hardly be aware of their learning but they are using the language to communicate. People refer it to implicit learning or natural learning.

③    Learning as another route is a conscious learning of the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules. Learning involves receiving information about the language. Transforming it into knowledge through intellectual effort and storing it through memorization.

 

 

Cooperative Principle was proposed and formulated by Paul Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. The principle has the following for maxims:
①the maxim of quantity:

(a). make your contribution as informative as required.

(b).do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
②the maxim of quality:

(a). do not say what you believe to false.

(b).do not say for which you lack adequate evidence.
③the maxim of relation: be relevant (有关联的)
④the maxim of manner:

(a). avoid obscurity(含糊)of expression_r.

(b) avoid ambiguity（多意的）.

(c) be briefed. be orderly (顺序).

The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language.

①    It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what have been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other.

②    Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.

③    Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense.

 

 

Language is heavily tinted with its culture.

①Language expresses and symbolizes cultural reality. A language, as a system of sighs as their own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of social identity. People are identified via their use of language.

②a people’s language uses express the culture; different discourse accents suggest different social status.

③Historically, it is the language that has played a major role in socializing the people and in perpetuating culture.

④culture also affects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.

⑤Culture is a wider system that completely includes language as subsystem. The relationship of language to culture is that of part to whole.

⑥Since the knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in the language of the people, it’s difficult to separate them.

⑦language as an integral parts of human being, permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality.

⑧language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.

 

There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.

①    One of them is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships.

②    Another indication is that the users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. And language, in its return, reveals information about the speaker.

③ language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society.

④As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the uation of a linguistic form is entirely social.

 

 

（一）Quantitative research：

①Quantitative research is more closely aligned with the classical scientific paradigm and involves gathering absolute data, so that it can be examined in as unbiased as possible.

②There are many principles that go along with quantitative research, which help promote its neutrality. Quantitative research generally comes later in a research project.

③The main idea behind quantitative research is to be able to separate things easily so that they can be counted and modeled statistically, to remove factors that may distract转移 from the intent意图 of the research.

（二）Qualitative research：

①Qualitative research is a much more subjective主观 form of research, in which the research allows themselves to introduce their own bias to help form a more complete picture.

②Quantitative research generally knows exactly what it’s looking for before the research begins, while in qualitative research the focus of the study may become more apparent as time progresses

③Often the data presented from qualitative research will be much less concrete than pure numbers as data. Instead, qualitative research may yield stories, or pictures, or descriptions of feelings and emotions.

（三）Qualitative methods are used for exploratory探索purposes or explaining puzzling quantitative results, while quantitative methods are used to test hypotheses假设.

 

 

Structure of an Essay

a)        Introduction

b)        Body of the Essay

c)        Conclusion

1.        Introduction includes what the essay is about , what material you intend to cover , what argument you intend to follow

2.        Body of the essay consists of Literature review, Research hypothesis Research methods and Findings.

To be more specific, ①give a series of points that you intend to cover.

②Working out what that order should be. In essence, an essay is an argument, so your structure should be based on what your argument is.

③not only give evidence for your point of view, but also demonstrate why opposing views are flawed. 有缺陷的

④try to predict their objections to your argument, and then demonstrate why they are wrong.

3. Conclusion:

①Summarizing the study：Summarize what it is that you have said in your essay, stating what your answer to the question is and why. Often, there is no simple answer so you should state what the complexities of the issue are.

②Falsify驳斥 or justify证明 your initial hypothesis

③Providing future research direction

 

Language aptitude：It refers to a natural ability for learning a second language. It is believed to be related to a learner’s general intelligence. It has been generally accepted that learners who achieve high scores in language tests learn rapidly and achieve high proficiency in second language learning

Motivation: Motivation can be defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive. It has a strong impact on his efforts in learning a second language. As learners’ motivate strong motivation promotes their learning, their learning process and achievement will in return enhance their learning motivation further.

Learning strategies: Learning strategies are learners’ conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. It includes Cognitive strategies ,Metacognitive strategies and Affect/social strategies

Age of acquisition: there are more advantages of children second language learners in learning capacity, learning rate and learning achievement exist in second language learning.

Personality: In terms of communicative ability rather than grammatical accuracy or knowledge of grammatical rules, the personality traits such as extroversion, talkative, self-esteem, self-confidence can be found in successful second language learners

 

The process of finalizing a title for linguistic paper

①At first, we must choose a research direction roughly and give a preliminary title, then narrow it down as possible, in order to get the definite title that is direct at the main point. Usually, the final title will appear to be formed with nouns or phrases.

②The principles of choosing a title: in the course of choosing a title, observing some effective principles that will make a contribution to a definite title. It goes as follows: the title should be innovative, significant and nichetargeting, at last we should consider whether there are adequate materials providing to us. to be more specific, a innovative title will contain new conclusion or supplement and improve the former conclusion; significance require you must pay attention to the value and practicability, the research could resolve the practical problem. Maneuverability contains some limits, such as the limit of time and the limit of length of the thesis.