查很多文献，发现大家有几个词搞不清楚，尤其是实证研究和经验分析，弄得我都糊涂了。一定要弄清楚啊。以下是自己的体会。

Empirical Research is any research that bases its findings on direct or indirect observation as its test of reality. Such research may also be conducted according to hypothetico-deductive procedures, such as those developed from the work of R. A. Fisher.

The researcher attempts to describe accurately the interaction between the instrument (or the human senses) and the entity being observed. If instrumentation is involved, the researcher is expected to calibrate her/his instrument by applying it to known standard objects and documenting the results before applying it to unknown objects.

In practice, the accumulation of evidence for or against any particular theory involves planned research designs for the collection of empirical data, and academic rigor plays a large part of judging the merits of research design. Several typographies for such designs have been suggested, one of the most popular of which comes from Campbell and Stanley (1963). They are responsible for popularizing the widely cited distinction among pre-experimental, experimental, and quasi-experimental designs and are staunch advocates of the central role of randomized experiments in educational research.

所以Empirical Research 翻译为经验研究比较合适，是指从直接或间接的观察获得信息，也可以遵循假设-推导的逻辑。过程大概包括研究设计：前验、实验、后验。

A.D. de Groot's empirical cycle:
Observation: The collecting and organisation of empirical facts; Forming hypotheses.收集数据，形成初步假设。
Induction: Formulating hypotheses.形成假设（比初步假设更进一步）
Deduction: Deducting consequenses of hypotheses as testable predictions.（推导可检验的假设）
Testing: Testing the hypotheses with new empirical material.（利用经验数据进行假设检验）
Evaluation: Evaluating the outcome of testing.（评估检验结果，大概就是判断假设是否成立）

Positive Research才应该是实证研究，与经济学和哲学范畴中所说的规范研究（normative research 相对应）。但是Positive这个词更加用于形容一种陈述方法。

In economics and philosophy, a positive statement concerns what is, and contains no indication of approval or disapproval. A positive statement can be factually incorrect: "The moon is made of black and gold cheese" is false, but a positive statement, as it is a statement about what exists. Positive statements are contrasted with normative statements.

Historical origins of the term could include reference to the philosophical notion of positivism.

Positive Economics即实证经济学， It focuses on facts and cause-and-effect relationships and includes the development and testing of economics theories. Positive economics as such avoids economic value judgements.这里Positive与Normative相对应，因为它规避价值判断，而规范研究是价值的权衡。

总结是作为一种陈述方法和研究方法，Positive和Normative相对应，Positive是存在事实的陈述，可以是真实的，也可以是假的。Normative是一种价值的权衡，应该这样而不应该怎么样。

作为一种研究方法，Empirical并不与实证或规范研究相对，经验研究方法可以用于实证研究，也可以用于规范研究。只是，在实证研究里，经验研究方法用于收集的fact更加常用，因为Positve就是基于fact的，但是这并不排斥Normative的研究里使用Empirical的方法，因为value也可以建立在基本的事实基础上。