怎么写一篇好的paper 经典

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Whitesides Group: Writing a Paper

George M. Whitesides

Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA02138, USA

 

1.What is a scientific paper?

A paper is an organized description of hypotheses, data and conclusions, intendedto instruct the reader. Papers are a central part of research. If your researchdoes not generate papers, it might just as well not have been done.“Interesting and unpublished” is equivalent to “non-existent.”

[科学技术论文是集假说、数值和论断为一体的赅括性描写]

Realize that your objective in research is to formulate and test hypotheses, todraw conclusions from these tests, and to teach these conclusions to others.Your objective is not to “collect data.”

[研讨的目标是为了形成并证明假说，得出论断，不是简单的数值使聚在一起。]

A paper is not just an archival device for storing a completed researchprogram, it is also a structure for planning your research in progress. If youclearly understand the purpose and form of a paper, it can be immensely usefulto you in organizing and conducting your research. A good outline for the paperis also a good plan for the research program. You should write and rewritethese plans/outlines throughout the course of the research. At the beginning,you will have mostly plan; at the end, mostly outline. The continuous effort tounderstand, analyze, summarize, and reformulate hypotheses on paper will beimmensely more efficient for you than a process in which you collect data andonly start to organize them when their collection is“complete.”

[论文并不只是使聚在一起研讨最后结果，也有助于形成进一步的研讨办公的框架][好的文章摘要也是研讨办公的好规划，在研讨的过程中，应当反反复复改正这些个规划或摘要。研讨办公着手时，应有完备的规划；办公终了时，应充分的总结概括。]

 

2.Outlines

2.1 The reason for outlines.

I emphasize the central place of an outline in writing papers, preparingseminars, and planning research. I especially believe that for you, and for me,it is most efficient to write papers from outlines. An outline is a writtenplan of the organization of a paper, including the data on which it rests. Youshould, in fact, think of an outline as a carefully organized and presented setof data, with attendant objectives, hypotheses and conclusions, rather than anoutline of text.

[依照纲要施行写文章是最管用的办法][纲要是一篇论文的行文规划，应当涵盖论文全部赖的数值。纲要不止只是列出各段的内部实质意义，而是依照目标， 假说， 论断来专心团体数值。]

An outline itself contains little text. If you and I can agree on the detailsof the outline (that is, on the data and organization), the supporting text canbe assembled fairly easily. If we do not agree on the outline, any text isuseless. Much of the time in writing a paper goes into the text; most of thethought goes into the organization of the data and into the analysis. It can berelatively efficient to go through several (even many) cycles of an outlinebefore beginning to write text; writing many versions of the full text of apaper is slow.

[在我们就纲要得到完全一样曾经，写正文是无谓的][在涉笔前，周密商议几遍写文章纲要会增长写文章速率；写众多遍正文反而很慢]

All the writing that I do - papers, reports, proposals (and, of course, slidesfor seminars)- I do from outlines. I urge you to learn how to use them as well.

2.2 How should you construct an outline?

The classical approach is to start with a blank piece of paper, and write down,in any order, all important ideas that occur to you concerning the paper. Askyourself the obvious questions:“Why did I do this work?” “What does itmean?”“What hypothesis did I mean to test?”“What ones did I actuallytest?”“What were the results?”“Did the work yield a new method or compound?What?”“What measurements did I make?”“What compounds? How were theycharacterized?” Sketch possible equations, figures, and schemes. It isessential to try to get the major ideas written down. If you start the researchto test one hypothesis, and decide, when you see what you have, that the datareally seem to test some other hypothesis better, don't worry. Write them bothdown, and pick the best combinations of hypotheses, objectives and data. Oftenthe objectives of a paper when it is finished are different from those used tojustify starting the work. Much of good science is opportunistic andrevisionist.

[找一页空白的纸，以不论什么顺着次序，写下与这篇文章相关的全部关紧观点][自问一点显而易见的问题][假如你的研讨着手是为证明一个如果，不过当你发觉你有的数值似乎实在可以更好地证验其他的如果时，你也不需要担心。把他们两者都开具来，去挑选如果，目标和数值的最佳组合。]

When you have written down what you can, start with another piece of paper andtry to organize the jumble of the first one. Sort all of your ideas into threemajor heaps (A-C).

[试着起草一份纲要。将你的观点分成三大类]

A) Introduction

Why did I do the work? What were the central motivations and hypotheses?

[为何我要做这件办公，主要的目标和如果是啥子？]

B) Results and Discussion

What were the results? How were compounds made and characterized? What wasmeasured?

[最后结果是啥子？化合物是怎样合成与表征的？测试办法是啥子？]

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C) Conclusions

What does it all mean? What hypotheses were proved or disproved? What did Ilearn? Why does it make a difference?

[全部这一切意味着啥子？证明或否决了啥子如果？我学到达啥子？最后结果为何别树一帜？]

Next, take each of these sections, and organize it on yet finer scale.Concentrate on organizing the data. Construct figures, tables, and schemes topresent the data as clearly and compactly as possible. This process can be slow- I may sketch a figure 5-10 times in different ways, trying to decide how itis most clear (and looks best aesthetically).

[把每一小批再仔细团体。特别是要集中收拾数值。要尽有可能把数值以清楚、紧凑密切的图表来展览]

Finally, put everything—outline of sections, tables, sketches of figures,equations - in good order.

[最终，把全部这些个—内部实质意义的纲要、表格、草图、方程式，排好顺着次序。]

When you are satisfied that you have included all the data (or that you knowwhat additional data you intend to collect), and have a plausible organization,give the outline to me. Simply indicate where missing data will go, how youthink (hypothesize) they will look, and how you will interpret them if yourhypothesis is correct. I will take this outline, add my opinions, suggestchanges, and return it to you. It usually takes 4-5 repeated attempts (oftenwith additional experiments) to agree on an outline. When we have agreed, thedata are usually in (or close to) final form (that is, the tables, figures,etc., in the outline will be the tables, figures,…in the paper.)

[当你已经全部包括了全部的数值（还是你明确晓得你还需求使聚在一起哪一些另外的数值），有了一个合理的构架，你对这些个都觉得满足时，将大纲交付我。简单扼要地标示哪一些地方还缺数值，你觉得（或测度）这些个数值约略是啥子样。假如你的测度是准确的，你将怎么样去诠释它。拿到你的大纲后，我将把我的观点，提议反馈给你。普通，我们需求四或五个往返能力得到完全一样（半中腰常常还需求补做一点实验）。在我们的意见完全一样后，全部的数值一般以最后（或靠近最后的）方式确认下来（也就是说，在纲要中的表格，图表等最后将变成文章中的表格，图表）。]

You can then start writing, with some assurance that much of your prose will beused.

[而后，你就可以着手涉笔写，注意你写的这些个大部分将用于正文。]

The key to efficient use of your and my time is that we start exchangingoutlines and proposals as early in a project as possible. Do not, under anycircumstances, wait until the collection of data is “complete” before startingto write an outline. No project is ever complete, and it saves enormous effortand much time to propose a plausible paper and outline as soon as you see thebasic structure of a project. Even if we decide to do significant additionalwork before seriously organizing a paper, the effort of writing an outline willhave helped to guide the research.

[合理运用我们的时间的关键是，我们应尽有可能早地交换纲要和提议。在不论什么事情状况下，都不要等到你已经使聚在一起“全”了数值在这以后才着手涉笔写纲要。研讨是永无尽头的。当你看见你的最后结果初具最新大概的形状时，就要迅即着手准备构思文章和纲要，这将节约你众多的精神力和时间。即使在严肃对待团体成文前，我们已经表决补做关紧的其它实验，试着写一个纲要也一定对研讨有引导意义。]

2.3 The outline

What should an outline contain?

1.Title:

2.Authors:

3.Abstract: Do not write an abstract. That can be done when the paper iscomplete.

[不要焦急写提要，可以等文章写完后再写。]

4.Introduction:

The first paragraph or two should be written out completely. Pay particularattention to the opening sentence. Ideally, it should state concisely theobjective of the work, and indicate why this objective is important.

[文章的第1或2段应当绝对用来写引言]

In general, the Introduction should have these elements:

*The objectives of the work.

*The justification for these objectives: Why is the work important?

*Background: Who else has done what? How? What have we done previously?

*Guidance to the reader. What should the reader watch for in the paper? Whatare the interesting high points? What strategy did we use?

[引言应当里面含有以下几个要素：办公目标。对办公目标名声：该办公为何很关紧？办公环境：谁做了啥子办公？做得如何？曾经我们做了哪一些办公？导读：读者应当注意该文章的哪一些方面？有意义的要领有哪一些？我们用到达哪一些策略？]

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*Summary conclusion. What should the reader expect as conclusion? In advancedversions of the outline, you should also include all the sections that will goin the Experimental section (at this point, just as paragraph subheadings).

5.Results and Discussion.

The results and discussion are usually combined. This section should beorganized according to major topics. The separate parts should have subheadingsin boldface to make this organization clear, and to help the reader scanthrough the final text to find the parts that interest him or her. Thefollowing list includes examples of the phrases that might plausibly serve assection headings:

[这一小批应依据正题来施行团体。分段应有黑体字的副题，目标是使文章更有头绪，能帮忙读者明白地通览全文，并找到它们有兴致的内部实质意义。]

*Synthesis of Alkane Thiols

*Characterization of Monolayers

*Absolute Configuration of the Vicinal Diol Unit

*Hysteresis Correlates with Roughness of the Surface

*Dependence of the Rate Constant on Temperature

*The Rate of Self-Exchange Decreases with the Polarity of the Solvent

Try to make these section headings as specific and information-rich aspossible. For example, the phrase “The Rate of Self-Exchange Decreases with ThePolarity of The Solvent” is obviously longer than “Measurement of Rates,” butmuch more useful to the reader. In general, try to cover the major commonpoints:

[尽有可能使副题具体况且内部实质意义浩博，尽力赅括该段落的并肩点]

*Synthesis of starting materials

*Characterization of products

*Methods of characterization

*Methods of measurement

*Results (rate constants, contact angles, whatever)

In the outline, do not write any significant amount of text, but get all thedata in their proper place: any text should simply indicate what will go inthat section.

*Section Headings

*Figures (with captions)

*Schemes (with captions and footnotes)

*Equations

*Tables (correctly formatted)

[在纲要中，不要罗布数量多的正文内部实质意义，而是要给出数值应放的合宜位置：不论什么正文应当简单明白地指出那段中涵盖了啥子数值。]

Remember to think of a paper as a collection of experimental results,summarized as clearly and economically as possible in figures, tables,equations, and schemes. The text in the paper serves just to explain the data,and is secondary. The more information that can be compressed into tables,equations, etc., the shorter and more readable the paper will be.

[把文章看作实验最后结果的聚齐，并尽有可能清楚和简洁地总结概括在图表，表格，方程和概况图中。论文中的正文是为诠释数值服务的，故而它曲直主要的。可以被压缩进表格，方程等的信息越多，文章越短，越易读。]

6.Conclusion.

In the outline, summarize the conclusions of the paper as a list of shortphrases or sentences. Do not repeat what is in the Results section, unlessspecial emphasis is needed. The Conclusions section should be just that, andnot a summary. It should add a new, higher level of analysis, and shouldindicate explicitly the significance of the work.

[在纲要里，总结概括论文中的论断应是由一点简单不长的短语或句子组成][论断不止只只是一个总结概括。它应当增加新的，更高层级的剖析，况且应当明确地指出这项办公的意义。]

7. Experimental.

Include, in the correct order to correspond to the order in the Resultssection, all of the paragraph subheadings of the Experimental section.

 

2.4 In summary:[总结概括：]

* Start writing possible outlines for papers early in a project. Do not waituntil the “end”. The end may never come.

[在一个项目着手时，就应当开始去写有可能的论文纲要，而不要等到论文终了的时刻。研讨有可能永恒没有结末可言。]

* Organize the outline and the paper around easily assimilated data - tables,equations, figures, schemes - rather than around text.

[收拾纲要和论文要环绕便于接纳的数值—表格，方程式，图表，概况图，而不是环绕正文。]

* Organize in order of importance, not in chronological order. An importantdetail in writing paper concerns the weight to be given to topics. Neophytesoften organize a paper in terms of chronology: that is, they recount theirexperimental program, starting with their cherished initial failures andleading up to a climactic successful finale. This approach is completely wrong.Start with the most important results, and put the secondary results later, ifat all. The reader usually does not care how you arrived at your big results,only what they are. Shorter papers are easier to read than longer ones.

[不是依照时间顺着次序, 而应按关紧性来收拾。应当从最关紧的最后结果写起，而后是较关紧的最后结果。读者们一般不关切你是怎么获得的最后结果，而只关切最后结果是啥子]

 

3. Some Points of English Style

[英文文体上的一点要领：]

1) Do not use nouns as adjectives:

2) The word “this” must always be followed by a noun, so that its reference isexplicit

3) Describe experimental results uniformly in the past tense.

[描写实验最后结果一例要用以往时态。]

4) Use the active voice whenever possible.

5) Complete all comparisons.

6) Type all papers double-spaced (not single-or one-and-a-half spaced), andleave 1 space after colons, commas, and after periods at the end of sentences.Leave generous margins. (generally, 1.25” on both sides & top &bottom).

Assume that we will write all papers using the style of the American ChemicalSociety. You can get a good idea of this style from three sources:

1) The Journal. Simply look at articles in the journals and copy theorganization you see there.

2) Previous papers from the group. By looking at previous papers, you can seeexactly how a paper should “look”. If what you wrote looks different, itprobably is not what we want.

3) The ACS Style Guide: A Manual for Authors and Editors. (Janet S. Dodd,Editor Washington, D.C. USA 1997) . Useful detail, especially the section on references.

I also suggest you read Strunk and White, The Elements of Style (Longman: NewYork, 2000, 4th edition) to get a sense for English usage. Two excellent bookson the design of graphs and figures are: “The Visual Display of QuantitativeInformation” by Edward R. Tufte, Graphics Press (1983)— and “EnvisioningInformation” also by Edward R. Tufte, Graphics Press (1990).