Learning and Acquisition

When the students have learnt everything they need to know about a language then this learning will turn into acquisition (like the understanding you have of your first language).
According to Krashen (1976,1982,1988) Learning about a language - its rules etc, - cannot turn into acquisition (knowing about a language). Acquisition can take place without learning and is a subconscious process. Learning takes place in a formal environment such as a school.
This hypothesis was just one of five parts of Krashens’ Monitor Model of Second Language Acquisition. This was very influential and led to a lot of debate and further research.
We shall therefore look at the five hypotheses that make up The Monitor Model.
Krashen’s monitor model
Krashen’s monitor model is made up of ____ hypotheses:
Acquisition-learning hypothesis.
Acquisition is the way children _______ their first language. Learning is a conscious process of study. Acquisition is more important. Only acquired language is _________ for fluent communication. Learning cannot become acquisition.
Monitor hypothesis
Learners monitor what they are saying or writing and correct it. They only do this when they are really concerned about formal correctness and when they have ____ to do so.
Natural order hypothesis
Second language learners acquire the features of the second language in a ___________ order. This natural order is ___________ of the order in which rules have been learned in language classes.
Input hypothesis
Learners acquire language in one way – by ________ to comprehensible input. If the input contains language just ______ the current level of the learner, then comprehension can occur and acquisition will occur.
Affective filter hypothesis
‘Affect’ refers to motives, needs, _________ and emotional states. If a learner is tense or _____, for example, they will ‘filter out’ input, making it ___________ for acquisition.
time attitudes angry pick up unavailable available five exposure predictable beyond independent
A Native Speaker Environment
Simply placing students in a second language environment in the hope that the students will learn the language is not enough. The language must be used in such a way that students understand the messages. To access the messages, students rely on context, knowledge of the world, and other clues including gestures, examples, illustrations, and caretaker language.
Students acquire more language when they are exposed to language which is comprehensible and just slightly above their current level of competence; for this reason, teachers must offer strategies for making the material accessible.
Also, teachers must be especially careful to challenge students without frustrating them. Anxiety and lack of motivation result when there is too great a difference between the students' level of language proficiency and the level of language they must understand. When the language is too far beyond the students' current level of proficiency students conclude that they cannot learn the language.
(See also Krashen’s input hypothesis.)
Correction

Systematic grammatical correction of errors does not improve the learners' language abilities. On the contrary it may hinder their motivation to use the language by placing emphasis on the form rather than the message. Also students are not always ready to take in the information the teacher is offering through correction.

More effective feedback includes rephrasing and expanding on what the students have expressed.
Source: Lightbrown and Spada : How Languages are Learnt. 1999.
Students need to learn grammar and vocabulary before they can speak.

The practice of learning words and breaking down and analyzing language components do not lead to language production nor do they lead to proficiency if they are taught without meaningful communication.
While grammar and vocabulary are essential parts of language, they are only enablers, which allow students to communicate.

Students learn a second language more easily if they engage in meaningful activities requiring the use of the language and its components. For example, students need to know the correct form of verbs so that they can use the verbs to talk about their daily activities.

Source V. Cook 1997 Second Language Learning and Teaching.
Stages
To become proficient in another language, students must progress through various overlapping stages spanning several years:
Pre-production/Comprehension Stage:
Students communicate with gestures and actions. They build receptive vocabulary and refine their listening skills. During this phase, called the “silent period,” students try to make sense of what they hear, but they do not engage in language production. Even though they do not speak, language acquisition has begun.
Early Production Stage:
Students speak and/or write using yes/no answers, one or two words, lists of words, or short phrases. They continue to expand their receptive vocabulary.
Speech Emergence Stage:
Students' speech production improves in both quantity and quality. Students speak and/or write in longer phrases and complete sentences and they use a wide range of vocabulary.
Intermediate Fluency Stage:
Students engage in conversations and produce connected narratives orally and in writing.
Advanced Stage:
Students speak and write in connected and unified paragraphs about most situations.
Understanding that students are going through a series of developmental stages helps teachers to predict and accept a student’s current stage and they can then adapt their teaching to encourage a students progress to the next stage.
Source: McLaughlin B. 1992 Myths and Misconceptions About Second Language Learning
Cognitive theories of SLA

Individual learners and their thought processes are different – their cognitive abilities differ. These cognitive abilities include their ability to learn languages – some have a natural talent for learning languages others do not. Learners strategies differ – some have good techniques for learning, some have good memories Learner motivation is different their confidence/anxiety differs and their own belief in their ability also seems to affect success.

Factors which may influence language learning:
Intelligence
Aptitude
Personality
Motivation
Attitudes
Age of Acquisition.

Recognition of the above has influenced much research into classroom interaction. Researches looked at: Communication between teachers and learners. They considered teachers’ questions, learner responses, teachers’ feedback and learners taking turns when speaking. They also looked at interaction and communication between learners and their communication strategies. As a result there was a shift from traditional language instruction to communicative task based language teaching.

Source: O'Malley, J.M. & Chamot, A.U. (1990) Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press.