第一章

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics

Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.

Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics

Teaching procedures

1. language

1.1 Why study language?为什么学习语言

A tool for communication交流的工具

An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.

If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism（结构）of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes ['kɔnstitju:t] （构成组成）our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.

1.2 What is language?什么是语言

1.2.1 different senses of language 语言的不同意义

1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)

a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing

a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial [kə'lokwɪəl]口语的;会话的language

an abstract抽象的 system

2. A webster’s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:

a. human speech 人类的言语

b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力

c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统

d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达

3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式.

Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful ['pə:pəsfəl] act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic [,si:mi'əustik] and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction [,intə'rækʃən]交际，相互影响 including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物.

1.2.2 definitions

一.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

What is communication?

A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).

A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)

Why do we say language is arbitrary?

Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic本身的;本质的;固有的;内在的(logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is explained by the fact that different language have different words for the same object, it is good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language . it is only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famous quotation from shakepeare’s play:” Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是一样香的.

Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.

Vocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak and listen before they write or read also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written.

Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.

People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.

Human ----language is human-specific.

Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.

“Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)

二.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive definition of language?

Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is used for human communication.

1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征

Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.

Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)
The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.

What is arbitrariness?任意性

a. arbitrariness---- arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of human language,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)
It was discussed by Saussure first.The link between them is a matter of convention.

E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)

Mansion (French)

房子(Chinese)

(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性

a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。

A gog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a gig. Language therefore is largely arbitrary.

b. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang ” ”crash” ”roar ” ” rumble ” ”cakle”, which are motivated in a certain sense.”

onomatopoeia拟声词---words that sound like the sounds they describe那些发音像它们的描写的声音的词

c. some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitary either. “type ” and ”write ”are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type -writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it . so we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.

arbitrary and onometopoeic effect may work at the same time.任意性和拟声可以同时起作用。

Eg. The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.夏日黄昏，群蝇嗡嗡地非。

(2) Arbitrary at the syntactic level 句法上的任意性

According to systematic-functionalists and American functionlists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. 对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。

Syntax-----it refers to the ways that sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement.句法就是依据语法安排造句之法。

(3) Aribrtary and convention任意性和约定性

The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.语言学上的符号和它的意义之间是约定俗成的关系。

The other side of coin of arbitrariness , namely, conventionality.任意性的相反面，即约定性。

conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.

Arbitrainess of langauge makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious.任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，而语言的约定性又使学习语言变得费力。

There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash) 

For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.

b. duality(二重性):--- one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of structures , such as units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指拥有两层结构的这种特性,底层结构是上层结构的组成成分,每层都有自身的组合规则.)

duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.

the higher level ----words which are meaningful

the lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.

Dog: woof (but not “w-oo-f ” )

This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.

The principle of economy

Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all language so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) . At the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments wich lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning.

According to HUZHUANGLIN, language is a system of two sets of structures or two levels, one of sound and the other of meaning. This is improtant for the workings of language.

A samll number of senmantic words /units, and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.这些意义单位组成无数个句子。(note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!).

Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No anmial communication system enjoys this duality.

To talk about duality we must notice that language is hierarchical.说到语言的二重性，我们必须注意语言的等级性。

li

c. Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.) non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.

creativity(创造性): one design feature of human language ,by creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. (指语言的能产性,因为语言有二重性和递归性.)

productivity----productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language , including those that has never heard before , but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.人们能够利用语言中原有的规则来理解从未碰到过的语言符号的特征。

e.g. an experiment of bee communication:

The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ‘new’ .

In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn’t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizonta distance. The bee cannot create a ‘new ’ message indicating vertical distance.

No one has never said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register.

Different from artistic creativity, productivity never goes outside the language, thus productivity is also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N. Chomsky)

Productivity is unique to human language. 创造性是人类语言的独一无二的特征。

d. displacement(移位性): one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.(指人类语言可以让使用者来表示在说话时(时间和处所)并不存在的物体,时间和观点.)

Bee communication:

When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.

Displacement , as one of the design features of the human languag, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real or unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future.人类语言可以被用来指不在当时当地发生的事情，这就使得人类能够谈论许多事情而不受时空限制。

Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speak, that means language has the feature of displacement.

Language itself can be talked about too. When a man , for esxample, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occuring, or soemthing that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can dicide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It counldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a samll share of “displacement”, but it’s an unspeakable tiny share

e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmission

You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.

The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.

This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular languag a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one lkie the dog’s barking system. （人类学习语言的能力有遗传基础，但任何详细的语言系统都必须通过教授和学习才能获得，这说明语言具有文化传递性，它不是靠人类的本能而获得的。）

If a human beging is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire langauge. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.

Animal call systems are genetically transmitted.动物是靠其基因来传递其呼叫系统的。

f. interchangeability 互换性

interchangeablity means that any human beging can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is differatiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barkds, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog /dogs is /are “speaking” and which listening.

What featrues of human langauge have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system?

Arbitrainess----a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of.

Duality----a feature totally lacking in any animal communication.

Creativity----animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.

Displacement----no animal can talk about things removed from the immediate situation.

Cultural transmission-----details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communicaiton.

Why do linguists say langauge is human specific?

First of all, huan language has six “design features” which animal communication sysmtens do not have, at least not in the true sense of them.

Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign language”, and learned a little that made the teacehrs happy but did not make the linguists circle happy, for few believed in teaching champanzees.

Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not enen when he is taken back and taught to do so.

1.4 Origin of language 语言的起源

1.5 functions of language 语言的功能

Jakobson difined the six primary factors of any speech event, namely: speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact. 雅科布逊定义了言语行为的六个要素：说话者，受话者，语境，信息，语码，接触。

Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:

Referential funtion-----to convey message and imformation所指功能：传达信息

Poetic funtion -----to indulge in language for its own sake 诗学功能：完全就语言而语言

Emotive funtion ----to express attitudes, feelings and emotions 感情功能：表达态度、感觉和感情

Conative funtion ----to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties 意动功能：通过命令和恳求去说服和影响他人

Phatic funtion ----to establish communion with others 交感功能：与他人建议交流

Metalingual function -----to clear up intentions, words and meanings 元语言功能：弄清意图、词语和意义

They correspond to such communication elements as context ,message, addresser, addressee, contact and code. 它们与一些交流活动的元素相对应，如语境，信息，说话者，受话者，接触和语码等。

Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language , that is, language has:韩礼德提出语言元功能的理论，即语言有：

Ideational function----constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations;概念功能：建构了经验模型和逻辑关系

Interpersonal function-----enacts social relationships 人际功能：反映了社会关系

textual functions----creates relevance to context. 语篇功能：创立了语言与语境的关系

Halliday proposed seven categories of language functions by observing child language development, that is , instrumental, regulatory, represnetational, interactional, personal, heuristic and imaginative.他通过观察儿童语言的发展提出了语言的七种功能，他们是工具功能，控制功能，表达功能，交互功能，自指性功能，教导功能和想象功能。

Function(功能): the use of language to communicate,to think ,etc.Language functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.(用语言交流,思考等.语言功能包括信息功能,人际功能,施为功能,感情功能,交感性功能,娱乐性功能和元语言功能.)
language has at least seven funtions: patic, directive, informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative.

Accoriding to Wang Gang (1988), langauge has three main functions:

a tool of communications,

a tool whereby people learn about the world;

a tool by which people creat art.

1.5.1 Informative function信息功能

What is the informative function?

Langauge serves an “informatvie function” when used to tell something , characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true or false. According to P. Grice’s “cooperative principle”, one ought not to violate the “maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.

Informative function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. 在功能语法的框架中，信息功能也被称为概念功能。

Halliday notes that “langauge serves for the expression of ‘content ’”: that is, of the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. 韩礼德指出“语言为表达‘内容’服务：这个‘内容’就是说话者的真实的经验世界，包括他自我意识的内部世界。“

It requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to us. 它需要人类的指挥从其他的不同角度看待事物，而不是按照语言提示给我们的那样去做。

1.5.2 Interpersonal function 人际功能

1.5.3 Performative function 施为功能

This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration , etc, are perfomatives.

1.5.4 Emotive function 感情功能

1.5.5 Phatic communion 交感性谈话

phatic communion(交感性谈话): one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.(人类语言的功能之一,指语言的社会交互性.)

broadly speaking, phatic funcion refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects.概况地说，交感性功能是指那些有助于说明，维持人际关系的表达，如俚语，玩笑，行业话，礼节性的交际，社会地域方言的转化等等。

The phatic function refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts than for exchanging imformation or ideas. Greetings , farewells and comments on the weather in English and cloting in Chinese all lserve this function. Much of the phatic langauge(eg, “how are you?” “fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don’t say “hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “hi ” , you ruin your friendship.

1.5.6 Recreational function 娱乐性功能

What is the evocative function? 什么是娱乐性功能？

The “evocative function” is the use of language to creat certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listerner; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative funtions often go together, i.e. you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issure but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s aslo the case with the other way round.

1.5.7 Metalingual function 元语言功能

metalanguage(元语言): certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.用以讲述或描述另一语言等的语言或一套符号。

What is the direct function?

The “direction function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this funtion. E.g. “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. Searle’s “Indirect speech act theory” at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g, “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”

What is the interrogative function?什么是疑问功能？

When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc. according to the “indirect sppech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g. “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorial questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s /listerner’s answer.

What is the expressive function?

The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” . sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative funciton to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evoluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.

1.6.What is linguistics

Linguistics is generally a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.

Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general. 语言学是对语言进行科学地研究的学科。它所研究的并不是某种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言的共性。

A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.

observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theory

A linguist , though , does not have to know and use a large number of language, but to investigate how each languag is constructed. He is also concerned with how a languag varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are consturcted and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.

Explain the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.

Lingusitics investigates not any particular language, but language in general. Linguistic stduy is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic language data. No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the lingusist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually used, formulating some hyphotheses, and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.

What makes linguistics a science?

Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principle: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity.

(1)Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explaination, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned.

(2) Consistency means there should be no countradiction between different parts of the total statement.

(3) Economy means a liguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when is is possible.

(4). Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist shoud be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitues part of the linguistics research.

1.7 Main branches (scope) of linguistics语言学的主要分支

Lingusitics should include at least five branches, namely:phonologic, morphologic, syntactic, senmantic and pragmatic.语言学至少包括五个分支：语音、形态、句法、语义、和语用。

General lingusitics 普通语言学-------the study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods appliable in any linguistic study. 把语言作为一个整体来研究的学科被称为普通语言学，它是语言学研究中探索人类语言的普遍性质和规律的学科。

1.7.1 phonetics 语音学-----studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech , the description and classification of speech sounds , words and connected speech, etc. 研究语音，包括言语的产生（也就是言语在现实中怎样形成，传递和接受），言语的声音，语音的描写和分类，词语和话语连接等等。

Phonetics----The study of sounds used in linguistic community led to establishment of a brach of linguistics called phonetics. How speech are produced and classified.

1.7.2 phonology 音系学（音位学）-----studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. English has approximately forty-five phonemes. 研究的是语音和音节的结构，分布和序列，它将音位视为起止点，来处理语言的语音系统。音位是语音的最小的语言学单位，它能够区分意义的不同。英语大概有45个音位。

Phonology------how sounds form systems and unction to convey meaning in communication.

Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.语音学是研究在言语中人类嗓音所能发出的语音，而音系学则是研究这些语音中能形成语言和意义的一个子集。

Phonetics foucuses on chaos while phonology focuses on order.语音学是无序的语音，音系学则注重有序。

1.7.3 morphology 词法学----is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning----morphemes and word-formation processess.涉及词语的内部组织，它研究意义的最小单位---语素和成词过程。

Morphology------the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to from words has constituted the branch of study called morphology. How morphemes are combined to form words.

1.7.4 syntax 句法学----is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax. These rules specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationship between words, word classes and other sentence elements.句法是形成和理解正确的英语句子的规则。句子形成或结构受制于句法规则，这些规则规定了词语顺序、句子组织、以及词之间，词的格之间，和其他句子成分之间的联系。

Syntax-----the combination of these words to form permissible sentences in language is govened by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies, i.e., syntax. How morpehemes and words are combined to form sentences.

1.7.5 semantics 语义学----examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences. Key concepts: senmantic component, denotation of words, sense relations between words such as antonymy and synonymy, sense relations between sentences such as entailment and presupposition.考察的是意义如何在语言中编码。它关心的不仅仅是字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和词之下的其他成分的意义，如语素和句子的意义。关键性概念：语义成分，词的所指，反义和同义等词语间的意义联系，诸如蕴涵和预设之类的句子间的意义联系。

Semantics-----the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as senmantics. The study of meaning (in abstraction)

1.7.6 pragmatics 语用学----is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmaitics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured.在语境中研究意义。它是在特定的场景中处理特定的话语，尤其注意于不同社会场景影响语言诠释的方法。换句话说，语用学关心的是语言被用来交际的方法，而不是语言组成的方式。

Pragmatics regards speech performance as primarily a social act ruled by various social conbentions. Some key concepts: reference, force, effect, and cooperative principles。语用学主要将言语行为看成是被各种社会常规所制约的一种社会行为。主要概念：所指、强制、效果和合作原则。

Pragmatics----the study of meaning is conducted , not in isolation, but in the context of use.研究语言与语言使用者和语言语境的关系。

1.8 macrolinguistics(宏观语言学): the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,the science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,computational linguistics etc. (心理学,社会学,人种学,法学和人工智能等等语言学有关联.宏观语言学的分支包括心理语言学,社会语言学,人类语言学,计算语言学等等.)

1.8.1 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学-----investigates the interreation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example. There is the psycholinguistic study of grammar. The psycholinguistics constrains on the form of grammar are studied. It also studies language development in the child, such as the theories of language acquisition; biological foundation of language; and a big topic----the relationship between language and cognition.心理语言学考察语言和意识的相互关系，如话语的处理和产生，以及语言习得等。还有语法的心理语言学研究，即研究心理语言学对语法形式的限制。心理语言学还研究儿童语言的发展，如语言习得理论、语言的生物学基础和认知的关系等。

Psycholinguistics----it relates the study of language to psychology . the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind.研究语言的产生和理解。语言习得等问题。

1.8.2 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学-----is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.研究语言多样性的特征、它们的功能特征和说话者的特征以及者三者在言语社团中持续的交互作用和变化。

Sociolinguistics-----the study of language with reference to society.研究语言与社会文化的产生。

1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学

1.8.4 Computational linguistics 计算语言学-----is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language (also known as “natural language”, to distinguish it from computer languages.) 一跨学科的领域，它以计算机处理和产生人类语言（即自然语言，与计算机语言相区别）这一应用为中心。

Applied linguistics 应用语言学-----the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. 研究语言学习和语言教学等问题。

1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics

1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive描写式”和 “规定式”

prescriptive(规定式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,i.e.laying down rules for language use.(规定事情应该是怎样的.)
descriptive(描写式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.(描述事情是怎样的.)

Descriptive vs. prescriptive “描写式”和 “规定式”

They represent two different types of linguistic study.

If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.

What makes traditional grammar different from moden linguistics?

Modern linguistics started with the publication of F. de Saussure’ s book “Course in General Linguistics” in the early 20^th century. So Saussure is often described as “father of modern linguistics”.

The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” They differ in several basic ways:

Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of “correctness”.

Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.

Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.

1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic “共时”和 “历时”

synchronic(共时的): a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.(共时的描写以一个固定的时间(通常,但非必须是现在)为它的观察角度,大多数的语法书属于此类型.)
.diachronic(历时的):study of a language is carried through the course of its history.(在语言的历史过程中研究语言.)

The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.

e.g (1) an essay entitled “On the sue of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alernation.

(2) a study of the features of the English used in Shakepeare’s time and would be a synchronic study, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study.

1.9.3 langue & parole “语言” 和 “言语”

langue(语言): the linguistic competence of the speaker.(说话者的语言能力.)
parole(言语): the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).(语言的实际现象或语料.)

The distinction was made by the Swiss linguist Saussure in the early 20^th century.

Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use, or the actual or actualized language.语言是一个语言社会的所有成员共同使用的抽象语言系统。言语是对于这些抽象语言系统的实际运用。

What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.

(1) Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation.语言是抽象的，言语是具体的，是因人而异的。

(2) Langue not actually spoken by an individual , parole always a naturally occruing event.

(3) Langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus nto suitable for systematic investigation.

What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great important, which casts great influence on later linguists.

1.9.4 Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用

competence(语言能力): a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.(一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解.)
performance(语言应用): the actual use of language in concrete situations.(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用.)

The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.

Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.

Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.

According to N. Chomsky, “compentence” is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language理想的语言使用者的抽象语言知识and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterance , in linguistic communication. 语言使用者在语言交际中对这种抽象语言知识的实际运用。

Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.

A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a spearker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed compentence.

Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.

How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?

Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study.

How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole differ to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?

Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , though similar to , F. de. Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual . Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistics point of view than N.Chomsky since the latter deals with his issures psychologically or psycholinguistically.索绪尔的理论与乔姆斯基的理论的不同之处在于索绪尔是从语言的社会学角度来谈论语言；而乔姆斯基是从语言的心理学角度来谈论语言的。

1.9.5 Etic vs. Emic

etic(非位的): a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was often the case with phonetic vs.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.(术语来自于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分.他更容易面临”非位”而不是”位学”的倾向,也就是实践中弄出来过多的不重要的区别,严格的语言学中有关语言和音位的分析就是这样的例子.)
4. emic(位学的): a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.(言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的,是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的.)
what is speech and what is writing?

Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or wirting? Why ?

Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary , not the written.

No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primary of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long bfore writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.

Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoke form of language, writing as written codes, give language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messanges can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowuff, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional, while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistics analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and tehre to fore.

Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistic study for the following reasons:

(1)Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution

(2)A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.

(3)Speech is the form in which imfants acquire their native language.

What is linguistic potential ? what is actual linguistic behaviour?

These two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M.A.K Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarlly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. “his actual linguistic behaviour”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said linguistic potential.

In what way do language , competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?

Language, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different. Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventins; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisialbe but reliable abstract system. Competence means” knowing”, abd linguistic potential set of possibilities for “doing ” ro “ performing actions”. They are similar in that they refer to the constant underlying the utterance, that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.

第三章

Chapter 3 Lexicon词汇

Teaching aims: let the students have a brief knowledge about morphemes and the basic word-formation methods

Focal points: definition and classification of morphemes; major word-formation methods

Teaching procedure

Lexicon：In its most general sense, lexicon is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, it deals with the analysis and creation of words.

Word

3.1 What is word

Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.词是个表达单位，不管是在口语还是在书面语中，说母语的人对词有种普遍的直觉识别能力。

3.1.1 Three senses of “word”“词”的三种含义

a. a physical definable unit: 是自然的有界限单位

word may be seen as a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks. 词可以看作是两个间隔或空白之间的音段成分或字母的组合群。

b. the common factor underlying a set of forms 是支配一组形式的共同因素。

Word is the common factor underlying a set of forms, a unit of vocabulary, a lexical item, or a lexeme. 词是在一组形式之下的共同要素，是词汇的单位，是一个词条，或是一个词位。
lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.

lexeme(词位):A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)

Lexeme-----is postulated as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts.词位被假定为语言词汇系统中潜在于最小单位之下的抽象单位，而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的。

e. g. boy boys; check, checks , checking, checked; write, writes, wrote, writing, written; fat, fatter, fattest

boy, check, write, and fat are the lexemes.

c. a grammatical unit 是一个语法单位。

e.g. It is kind of you ,Miss Hou.

Every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence.

3.1.2 Identification of words词的识别

1. stability 稳定性

Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, that is, the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierachy.But it is all right for us to rearrange the constituents in a sentence to a certain degree . 所有语言单位中词是最稳定的，就其内部结构来说，跟句子层面成分相对的位置灵活性相比，复合词的组成成分一般不能重新调整次序。但是句子成分却可以做一定程度的重新排列。

e.g. The chairman looked at the audience. 主席看观众

The audience loooked at the chairman. 观众看主席。

2. Relative uninterruptibility 相对的连续性

By uninterruptibility, we mean new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nor is allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word. 连续性，是指即使一个词由几个部分构成，新的成分也不能插进词的中间。各部分之间也不允许有停顿。

3. A minimum free form 最小的自由形式

It was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. H eadvocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word” the minimum free form”, word being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance. 由布龙菲尔德首先提出来。他提倡把句子看作“最大的自由形式”，把词看作“最小的自由形式”。词是能独立构成一个完整语句的最小的单位。

3.1.3 Classification of words 词的分类

a. Variable vs. invariable words 可变化词和不变词

Words can be classfied according to their variability. 根据可变性可以对词进行分类。

In variable words----- one could find ordered and regular series of gramartically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. Thus , each ordered series constitutes paradigm. 关于可变化词，人们可以找到一系列整齐而有规则的词形，它们在语法上是不同的；另一方面，词的一部分相对保持不变。因此每一个整齐的系列构成一个集合。

Invariable words------refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings. 不变词指since,when, seldom, through, hello这一类词。它们没有形态结尾。

b. Grammatical words vs. lexical words 语法词和词汇词

In terms of the meaning expressed by words, they can be classified into Grammatical words vs. lexical words.就表达的意义来说，词可以分为语法词和词汇词。

Grammatical words/ function words------those which express grammatical meanings, such as , conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words. (表达语法意义的是语法词,如连词,介词,冠词,代词.)

Lexical words/ content words--------those which have lexical meanings, that is , those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, re lexical words. (具有词汇意义指物质,动作和性质的是词汇词,如名词,动词,形容词,副词.)

As the lexical words carry the main content of a language while the grammatical ones serve to link its different parts together, the lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical ones function words. 词汇词承载了语言的主要内容，而语法词是用来把不同的片段连接在一起的，所以词汇词又叫做实义词，语法词又叫做功能词。

c. Closed-class words vs. open-class words封闭类词和开放类词

The distinction of grammatical words and lexical words leads to distinction of “colsed-class” words and “open-class” words.语法词和词汇词的区别导致了封闭词类和开放词类的区别。

Closed-class word(封闭词类):------ a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. .(封闭词类的成员数目是确定的,有限的.新成员不会有规律地增加.例如代词,介词,连词,冠词等.)

open-class word(开放类词):------- a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.(开放类词的成员数目原则上是无穷的,无限的.例如名词,动词,形容词和多数副词.)

What are open classes? What are closed classes?
In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are “open-class words”, since we can regularly add new lexical entries to these classes. The other syntactic categories are, for the most part, closed classes, or closed-class words. The number of them is hardly alterable, if they are changeable at all.

d. Word class 词类

Classify words either by analyzing the various grammatical, semantic, and phonological properites of the words in language, or by grouping them into classes on the basis of formal similarities in PART OF SPEECH in traditional grammar.要划分词类，更现实的方法是分析词在语言中的不同的语法特征，语义特征和音系特征，或者根据形态变化和分布方面的形式相似形来给词分组。在传统语法中词类part of speech是封闭的。

Particles 、Auxiliaries、 Pro-form 、Determiners 助词，助动词、代词形式、限定词

3.2The formation of word 词的形成

3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology 语素和形态学

The smallest components are known as morphemes. But they themselves cannot further analyzed. 最小的成分叫语素。但是语素本身不能再作进一步分析。

Morpheme---- is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. (就表达和内容之间的关系看,语素是最小的语言单位,不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇一样或语法意义.)

Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning ,the basic unit in the study of morphology. 词素是形态学研究的最基本的单位。

Morpheme is the smallest meaning-bearing unit of language.词素是单词的最小的有意义的组成部分。

The word”boxes”, for example, has two morphemes: “box” and ” -es”, neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don’t wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore, a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning.

Morphology---- is the immediate concern of a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.直接涉及语素研究的语言学分支叫做形态学，研究词的内部结构以及词的构造规则。

What is morphology?什么是形态学？

Morphology is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology, and lexical / derivational morphology. Inflectional morphology studies the inflections and lexical / derivational morphology studies the word-fromation. 形态学是语法学的一个分支，研究单词的内部结构和构词规则。形态学有两个分支：曲折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。曲折形态学研究语法曲折和语法意义的形态学；派生形态学研究单词的构成和词义的表达。

What does morphology study? The internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formation.

The two fields ：

Inflectional morphology 曲折形态学: the study of inflections

Derivational morphology: 派生形态学the study of word-formation

3.2.2 Types of morphemes

morpheme free: free root

bound bound root root

affix inflectional

derivational prefix

suffix

1. free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由语素和粘着语素

Morphemes can be classified into two types in terms of their capacity of occuring alone.根据能否单独出现，可以将语素分为两类。

free morpheme(自由语素):-------Those morphemes which may occur alone, that is , those which may constitue words by themselves, are free morphemes(能单独出现,也就是能独自成词的,叫做自由语素.)

Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves

bound morpheme(粘着语素): -s in dogs, -al in national, and dis- n disclose, cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least another morpheme, and are called bound morphemes.(dogs中的-s, national 中的-al, disclose中的dis-不能单独出现,它们必须跟至少一个其他语素共现,这样的语素叫做粘着语素.)

Bound morphemes: morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words

. What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?
A “free morpheme” is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as ‘bed”, “tree”, etc. A “bound morpheme” is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “-s” in “beds”, “-al” in “national” and so on. All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. Those polymorphemic words are either compounds (combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives (word derived from free morphemes).

2. root, affix and stem 词根，词缀和词干

（1）root(词根): the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. (词根是词的基本形式,不能再作进一步的分析而完全不损失同一性。也就是说，去掉所有的词缀后，词所剩下的部分就是词根。

All words contain a root morpheme.所有的词都包含一个词根语素。

A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning ; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.词根，粘着语素的一种，往往被看作是一个单词的一个部分。它本身有清楚，确定的意义，却不能被单独使用，而只能与另外一个词根结合在一起或与另外一个词缀结合在一起才能形成一个单词。

（2）affix(词缀): the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem).(词缀是一个构词成分的集合,它们只能附加于另一个语素词根或词干上.)

Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word.语言中词缀的数量总是有限的，根据它们跟词根或词干的相对位置，一般可以把词缀分外三小类：前缀，后缀和中缀。

Prefix前缀----prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. dis-; un-; mis- para-; mini- ; 前缀通常改变原来单词的意义，但不改变其词性。

Exception: be-; en-; em-; Added to adjectives or nouns they turn the words into verbs.

For example: little----belittle; large---enlarge; rich---enrich; body---embody

Suffix后缀:-----suffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning of the orginal word and in many cases change its part of speech. -ly; -ness; -tion; -ise; 后缀加在词干后面，通常改变原来词的意义，并且大所数情况下改变词性。

Infix中缀: foot/feet; goose/geese ;–oo-; -ee- ;

some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into two parts.

tatawa “a person who will laugh”

tumatawa “a person who is laughing”

ngitad “dark”

ngumitad “to be dark”

In this language, the infix –um- is inserted after the first consonant of a noun or adjective. (fikas- “strong” fumikas-- “to be strong”

（3）Stem(词干): any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.(词干是指能加上屈折词缀的语素或语素的组合.)
a stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.派生词缀可加在已存在的形式词上形成的一个新词，原来存在的形式词被称为词干。词干可以是粘着词根，自由词素和一个派生词。

What is a root ? What is a stem? What is an affix?
A “root” is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a “root” is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. “Internationalism” is a four-morpheme derivative which keeps its free morpheme “nation” as its root when “ inter-”, “-al” and “-ism” are taken away.
A “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added. It may be the same as, and in other cases, different from, a root. For example, in the word “friends”, “friend” is both the root and the stem, but in the word “friendships”, “friendships” is its stem, “friend” is its root. Some words (i. e., compounds ) have more than one root ,e. g., “mailman” , “girlfriend” ,ect. An “affix” is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes: prefix, suffix and infix, e. g. , “mini-”, “un-”, ect.(prefix); “-ise”, “-tion”, ect.(suffix).

3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix 曲折词缀和派生词缀

Inflection/inflexion(屈折变化):------ the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.(屈折变化是通过附加屈折词缀的语法关系的表现,如数,人称,有定性,体和格,屈折词缀不会改变所附加词语的语法类.)

Inflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.

E.g. workers, children; walking, walked; biggest ; John’s

derivation(派生词):------the manifestion of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes. Different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.(通过增加派生词素来表明词干与词缀关系的构词法。跟复合词不同,派生词则能表明词根和词缀之间的关系.)

Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes , added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position in the new words, : prefix, suffix and infix.

3.2.3 Inflection and word formation 屈折变化和词的形成

There are two fields Morphology concerns:形态学涉及两个领域：

(1) the study of Inflections(also called inflectional Morphology)研究屈折变化

(2) the study of word-formation (often referred to as lexical or derivational morphology)研究词的形成，常指词汇形态学或派生形态学

1. Inflection 屈折变化

What is inflection/inflexion?
“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.屈折变化是通过附加屈折词缀的语法关系的表现，如数，人称，有定性，体和格，屈折词汇不会改变所附加词语的语法类。

2． word formation 词的形成

Word –formation, in its restricted sense, refers to the propcess of word variations signalling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type(compond) and the deriational type(derivation).词的形成，从严格意义上讲，指词形变化的过程，这些词形变化是标志词项之间的关系的。这可以进一步分为复合类（复合词）和派生类（派生词）两种。

A. Compond 复合词

Compond, one the whole, refers to those words that consisit of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.整体上说，复合词指那些由一个以上的词汇语素构成的词，或者由两个独立的词连接起来构成新的形式。

In compounds, the two lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.复合词中，两个词汇语素可能是不同的词类。

compound(复合词): polymorphemic words(多语素词) which consist wholly of free morphemes,suc as paymaster,moonwalk,babysist,godfather,sunflower,classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.(组成成分都是自由语素的多语素词.)

B．Derivation 派生词

Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.派生词能表明词根和词缀之间的关系。

3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology音系学和形态学的对立

1. morpheme and phoneme (p93-95)语素和音位

A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound; a morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar音位是语音中最小单位；语素是语法中的最小单位。

Morphonology形态音系学; morphophonemics 形态音位学

Asingle phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical.单个的音位可以代表一个语素，但他们并不总是一致的。

2. Morphemic structure and phonological structure语素结构和音位结构

Morphemes may also be represented by phonological strucutres other than a single phoneme.语素也可以不用单个音位表示，而用音位结构表示。

The syllabi c( phonological) structure of a word and its morphemic (grammatical) structure do not necessarily correspond.一个词的音节（音位）结构和语素结构不一定是一致的。

3. allomorph语素变体

A morpheme is a linguistic abstraction; it is a concept. It needs to be represented in certain phonological and orthographic forms. Those forms are called morphs.

In morphemic transcription, morphemes in the abstract notion are put between braces like

Allomorph: A morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. The variant forms of the same morpheme are called its allomorphs.

allomorph(语素变体): any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.

3. Morphophonology or Morphophonemics 形态音系学，又叫形态音位学

Morphophonology (Morphonology) or Morphophonemics (Morphonemics) is a branch of linguistics refering to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and , correspondingly, the grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. At any rate, it studies the interrelationships between phonology and morphology.形态音系学或形态音位学，是语言学的一个分支，指对影响语素形式的音位要素的分析和分类，以及对影响音位形式的语法要素的分析和分类。总之，它是研究音系学和形态学之间的相互关系。

a. Phonologically conditioned 音位的限制

The form or shape of morphemes may be conditioned by phonological factors.语素的形式可能会受到音位要素的限制。

.dissimilation(异化作用): the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.(指一个音段影响了另一个音段的清晰度,以致语音变得不太相似或不同.)

b. Morphologically conditioned 形态的限制
What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?
The “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. The word “boxes”, for example, has two morphemes: “box” and “-es”, neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don’t wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning. Allomorphs, like allophones vs. phones, are the alternate shapes (and thus phonetic forms) of the same morphemes. Some morphemes, though, have no more than one invariable form in all contexts, such as “dog”, “cat”, etc. The variants of the plurality “-s” make the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map-maps, mouse-mice, sheep-sheep etc.

What is lexicon? What is word? What is lexeme? What is vocabulary? Lexicon? Word? Lexeme? Vocabulary?
“Lexicon”, in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, however, lexicon deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations. “Word” is a unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. This definition is perhaps a little vague as there are different criteria with regard to its identification and definition. It seems that it is hard, even impossible, to define “word” linguistically. Nonetheless it is universally agreed that the following three senses are involved in the definition of “word”, none of which, though, is expected to cope with all the situations: (1) a physically definable unit, e.g. [it iz ‘w ] (phonological), “It is wonder” (orthographic); (2) the common factor underlying a set of forms (see what is the common factor of “checks”, “checked”, “checking ”, etc.); (3) a grammatical unit (look at (1) again; every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence). According to Leonard Bloomfield, a word is a minimum free form (compare: a sentence is a maximum free form, according to Bloomfield). There are other factors that may help us identify words: (1) stability (no great change of orthographic features); (2) relative uninterruptibility (we can hardly insert anything between two parts of a word or between the letters). To make the category clearer we can subclassify words into a few types: (1) variable and invariable words; (2) grammatical and lexical words (e. g. to, in, etc., and table, chair, etc. By “lexical words” we mean the words that carry a semantic content, e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs; (3) closed-class and open-class words. In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term “word”, the term “lexeme” is postulated as the abstract unit which refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units. A lexeme can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written texts. For example, “write” is the lexeme of the following words: “write”, “write”, “wrote”, “writing”, and “written.” “Vocabulary” usually refers to all words or lexical items a person has acquired about technical or/and untechnical things. So we encourage our students to enlarge their vocabulary. “vocabulary” is also used to mean word list or glossary.
What is collocation?
“Collocation” is a term used in lexicology by some linguists to refer to the habitual co-occurrences of individual lexical items. For example, we can “read” a “book”; “correct” can narrowly occur with “book” which is supposed to have faults, but no one can “read” a “mistake” because with regard to co-occurrence these two words are not collocates.

3.3 Lexical change词汇变化

3.3.1 Lexical change proper特有的词汇变化

Major ways to create new words:

Compounding: a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.

blackboard godfather baby-sit cross-cultural

Derivation: the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots or words.

e.g. finalize widen hospitalize clockwise (顺时针)

Blending混成法 : a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.

blending(混成法): a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.(混成法是一种相对复杂的混合形式,由两个单词混合而成,一般是一个单词的开头部分和第二个单词的最后部分连接起来,或者是把两个单词的开头部分连接起来.)

transistor(transfer+resister)晶体管; smog(smoke+fog)烟雾; positron(positive+electron)正电子; boatel(boat+hotel)水上旅馆； brunch(breakfast+lunch)早午餐； smaze(smog+haze);

telecast(television+ broadcast)电视广播 ; motel (motor +hotel)；

cremains(cremated+remains)骨灰； telex(teleprinter+exchange)电报，电传打字机；

modem(modulator+demodulator)调制解调器； anacom(analog+computer)分析计算机；

digicom(digital+computer)数码计算机； insulac(insulating++lacquer)绝缘材料

Fusion溶合法，混成法的一种,eg. Stample(trample+stamp on); crackdown(crackup+breakdown)

Abbreviation缩写词: a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form.

e.g. TV(television) Dr(doctor) hr(hour) ft(foot or feet)

clipping截断法: a kind of abbreviation of longer words or phrases。A new word is created by

A. Cutting the final part (or with a slight variation)截掉后面的部分（或有些小的变化）

memorandum---memo advertisement---ad; bicycle----bike; professor—prof fantic--fan

B. Cutting the initial part删去开头的部分

telephone---phone; omnibus—bus; helicopter—copter; aeroplane---plane

C. Cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly删去开头和结尾相应的部分

e.g. electronic mail---e-mail high fidelity---hi-fi; influenza—flu; refrigerator---fridge

Acronym缩略语: a word created by combining the initial letters of a number of words.

acronym(缩略词): is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.(缩略词是由组织机构名称的首字母构成的,而这个组织机构的名称有多重修饰语.)

e.g. UNESCO联合国教科文组织； APEC Sars CD laser radar (radio detecting and ranging)； WB世界银行

Initialism: VOA BBC WTO CIA EEC欧洲经济共同体；

Back-formation逆构词法: a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.

back-formation(逆构词法): an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.(构词法中一种不规则的类型,即把一个语言中已经存在的较长单词删去想象中的词缀,由此造出一个较短的单词.)

televise (from television) donate (from donation) enthuse (from enthusiasm)

Analogical creation 类推构词

Borrowing借词: the taking over of words from other languages

A. loanword(借词): a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.(借词的形式和意义都是借用的,有时为了适应新语言的音位系统,可以有些细小的改变.)
B. .loanblend(混合借词): a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.(指借词的一部分来自本国语,另一部分来自外来语,但是意义全都是借来的.)
C. loanshift(转移借词): a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.(转移借词的意义是借用的,但是形式是来自本国语.)

D. Loan translation(翻译借词): a special type of borrowing, in which each morphemeor word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.(翻译借词是一种特殊的借用,每个语素或单词都是从另一种语言中的语素或单词对等地翻译过来的.) Calque仿造词

Coinage : the invention of a new word

3.3.2 Phonological change音位变化

Changes in sounds lead to changes in form

(1)vowel sound change: Great Vowel Shift in history

(2) loss(脱落)----:the loss of sound can first reter to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system.(语音脱落首先可以指音位系统中作为音位的某个语音的消失.)

(3)sound addition添加

(4)metathesis换位

(5) assimilation(同化作用): refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called ”contact”or ”contiguous” assimilation.(指由于邻近语音的影响而产生的语音变化,更明确的叫法是”接触同化” 或 “邻近同化.”)

3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change形态句法变化

(1) Morphological change 形态变化

(2) Syntactical change 句法变化

3.3.4 Semantic change语义变化

The change of meaning of a word

Broadening词义扩大

Narrowing词义缩小

Meaning shift词义转移: a process in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning.

Class shift (conversion变换)词性变换: zero-derivation零派生

Elevation and degradation

.folk etymology(俗词源): a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.(指词或短语的形式由于对词源的错误而又普遍的解释或对词义的错误理解,或者由于受到更熟悉的词汇的影响而进行错误的类推,导致了新的意义的产生.)

3.3.5 Orthographic change 拼写的变化